simpleknittedbodice

life

2009-03-24T00:54:00.000-07:00

Life is a characteristic of organisms that exhibit certain biological processes such as chemical reactions or other events that results in a transformation. Living organisms are capable of growth and reproduction, some can communicate and many can adapt to their environment through changes originating internally. A physical characteristic of life is that it feeds on negative entropy. In more detail, according to physicists such as John Bernal, Erwin Schrödinger, Eugene Wigner, and John Avery, life is a member of the class of phenomena which are open or continuous systems able to decrease their internal entropy at the expense of substances or free energy taken in from the environment and subsequently rejected in a degraded form

2008-05-01T09:06:00.001-07:00

Melvin Schwartz (November 2, 1932 – August 28, 2006) was an American physicist. He shared the 1988 Nobel Prize in Physics with Leon M. Lederman and Jack Steinberger for their development of the neutrino beam method and their demonstration of the doublet structure of the leptons through the discovery of the muon neutrino.
He grew up in New York City in the Great Depression and went to the Bronx High School of Science. His interest in physics began there at the age of 12.
He earned his B.A. (1953) and Ph.D. (1958) at Columbia University, where Nobel laureate I. I. Rabi was the head of the physics department. Schwartz became an assistant professor at Columbia in 1958. He was promoted to associate professor in 1960 and full professor in 1963. Tsung-Dao Lee, a Columbia colleague who had recently won the Nobel prize at age 30, inspired the experiment for which Schwartz received his Nobel. Schwartz and his colleagues performed the experiments which led to their Nobel Prize in the early 1960s, when all three were on the Columbia faculty. The experiment was carried out at the nearby Brookhaven National Laboratory.
In 1966, after 17 years at Columbia, he moved west to Stanford University, where SLAC, a new accelerator, was just being completed. There, he was involved in research investigating the charge asymmetry in the decay of long-lived neutral kaons and another project which produced and detected relativistic hydrogen-like atoms made up of a pion and a muon.
In the 1970s he founded and became president of Digital Pathways. In 1991, he became Associate Director of High Energy and Nuclear Physics at Brookhaven National Laboratory. At the same time, he rejoined the Columbia faculty as Professor of Physics. He became I. I. Rabi Professor of Physics in 1994 and retired as Rabi Professor Emeritus in 2000. He spent his retirement years in Ketchum, Idaho, and died August 28, 2006 at a Twin Falls, Idaho, nursing home after struggling with Parkinson's disease and hepatitis C.

2008-04-30T09:37:00.001-07:00

Maximilian I of Habsburg (March 22, 1459 – January 12, 1519) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1508 until his death. He expanded the influence of the House of Habsburg through both war and marriage. He is often referred to as "The Last Knight".

Life and reign in the Habsburg hereditary lands
Maximilian governed his first wife's vast inheritance in the Low Countries, and he prosecuted a war over them with Louis XI, King of France on her behalf. Louis died in 1483 and his successor, Charles VIII of France, was a minor whose regent, Anne of France, ended France's bellicosity for a time. Maximilian continued to govern Mary's remaining inheritance in the name of their young son, Philip the Handsome. After the regency ended, Maximilian and Charles VIII exchanged these two territories for Burgundy and Picardy in the Treaty of Senlis (1493). Thus ultimately much of the Netherlands became and remained a Habsburg possession.

Reign in Burgundy and The Netherlands
Elected King of the Romans in 1486 at the initiative of his father, he also stood at the head of the Holy Roman Empire upon his father's death in 1493. The following year, after he married a daughter of the Duke of Milan (16 March 1494), Maximilian sought to expand his power in parts of Italy, where he had tried to re-establish the lost Habsburg dominance.
Maximilian is possibly best known for leading the 1495 Reichstag at Worms which concluded on the Reichsreform (Imperial Reform), reshaping much of the constitution of the Holy Roman Empire. In the 1499 Treaty of Basel, Maximilian was forced to acknowledge the de-facto independence of the Swiss confederacy from the Empire as a result of the Battle of Dornach.
In 1508, Maximilian, with the assent of Pope Julius II, took the title of Elected Roman Emperor (Erwählter Römischer Kaiser), and thus ended the century-old custom that the Holy Roman Emperor had to be crowned by the pope.

Tu felix Austria nube
Maximilian died in Wels, Upper Austria, and was succeeded as Emperor by his grandson Charles V, his son Philip the Handsome having died in 1506. Although he is buried in the Castle Chapel at Wiener Neustadt, a cenotaph tomb for Maximilian is located in the Innsbruck Hofkirche[1].
Maximilian was a keen supporter of the arts and sciences, and he surrounded himself with scholars such as Joachim Vadian and Andreas Stoberl (Stiborius), promoting them to important court posts. His reign saw the first flourishing of the Renaissance in Germany.
Maximilian had appointed his daughter Margarete of Austria as both Regent of the Netherlands and the guardian and educator of his grandsons Charles and Ferdinand (their father, Philip, having predeceased Maximilian), and she fulfilled this task well. Through wars and marriages he extended the Habsburg influence in every direction: to the Netherlands, Spain, Bohemia, Hungary, Poland, and Italy. This influence would last for centuries and shape much of European history.

Death and legacy

Ancestors

Mary of Burgundy (1457–1482) — married in Ghent on August 18, 1477
Anna of Brittany (1477–1514) — married by proxy in Rennes on December 18, 1490
Bianca Maria Sforza (1472–1510) — married 1493 Children

Maximilian armour
Landsknechts

2008-04-29T09:26:00.001-07:00

Twins is a Hong Kong-based female Cantopop duo created in the summer of 2001 by Albert Yeung's Emperor Entertainment Group (EEG). Twins is made up of two young ex-models, Charlene Choi Cheuk-Yin (蔡卓妍) and Gillian Chung Yan-Tung (鍾欣桐), who by birth is originally Chung Ka-Lai.

Biography
See also: Twins discography
Like most other new singers, Twins made a great deal of effort to boost their popularity. During their first two years, they released 3 EPs and 3 albums, all of which sold very well. Most of their songs stayed at the top of many different musical charts for several weeks. Their achievements helped highlight and cement their popularity amongst other new singers. Twins had their first concert in 2002 and three more in 2003, one of which was held in Guangzhou. Between 2001 and 2003, they received a total of 48 musical awards. This was a remarkable feat for the relatively new group at the time, and it showed that their effort had been highly appreciated. In 2003, they received the largest number of awards in the annual prize presentations from the four major Hong Kong media organizations, which are RTHK, MetroRadio and TVB.

Singing career as a group
When Twins started their singing careers, there were very few musical groups in Hong Kong. However, after Twins' success, other music producers realized there was a huge market for group singers. As a result, more singing groups were formed.

Twins' effect
Twins have been subjected to a wide range of criticism concerning poor singing skills, unclear Mandarin pronunciation, and lack of a reckoning status as singers (since they showed that they have been distracted from their singing career), although most of the criticisms are unverified. Nevertheless, Twins have entered the Mandarin market successfully and their popularity keeps increasing in the Chinese music industry. Twins spoke Mandarin well when they became guest stars in Mainland China and Taiwan TV programs. Many TV hosts praised the singing, dancing, and acting skills, and attractiveness of Twins. In particular, Charlene has attracted many directors and movie investors, thus having a non-stop movie schedule for 2007. Gillian also participated in many Chinese drama series in 2006-2007. Twins state that they are currently trying hard to improve in all aspects of their performance (singing, dancing, acting), and have recently started to take singing lessons with popular entertainment voice coach Christine Samson. Twins will be releasing their third Mandarin album in late 2007.

Appraisal and criticism
The Hong Kong musical industry has shown, many pop group bands break-up after they acquire a considerable level of popularity. The Twins are not immune to this and there have been rumors that Twins is also facing the same fate. It has been suggested by EEG that their concerts due for early 2006 may be their last. However these rumours have been around before and have proved unfounded and purely for entertainment purposes in generating gossip for tabloids.
At the 2006 Hong Kong Entertainment Awards ceremony Choi tearfully acknowledged that there have been criticisms of the Twins' singing abilities and that she hoped that they could better improve in the coming year.
Twins overcame rumours of splitting up when they attended the May 2006 MTV Asia Awards in Thailand together. They were nominated for and won the Hong Kong Most Popular Singer Award. Twins garnered many more votes than Andy Lau, who was predicted to take home this award. This is arguably the most important award for their profile.
(February 2007) They have also recently celebrated their sixth year together in the Hong Kong music industry and with this the release of a special sixth anniversary new+best selection CD/DVD. Most rumours of a split have ceased and they have reaffirmed to their fans they will celebrate in another six years time.
(September 2007) To celebrate their sixth anniversary since entertaining the entertainment circle, Twins will embark on a multi-city North American concert tour, with special guests Sun Boy'Z. They will perform live on September 15,2007 at the Cow Palace in San Francisco.[1] Other stops on their tour will include Toronto, Los Angeles, and Atlantic City. It is their first time performing on a major tour across several North American cities.

Twins' fate in the coming future
Apart from their singing careers, Twins have also been involved in a number of advertisements, television series and films. Within their first three years, they had appeared in 18 advertisements, a television series, and 16 films, being cast as main characters in 6 of these.
The Twins have also been selected to promote several social campaigns in Hong Kong, such as summer activities for the Hong Kong Home Affairs Bureau in July 2003.

Other ventures
Featuring Both Charlene and Gillian:
Featuring Gillian:
Upcoming: 地獄十九層出水芙蓉
Featuring Charlene:
Upcoming: Kung Fu Dunk (灌篮)

2002 June 14 Summer Breeze of Love (這個夏天有異性)
2002 September 19 Just One Look (一碌蔗)
2003 June 23 Twins Effect (千機變)
2003 November 6 The Death Curse' (古宅心慌慌)
2004 January 15 Fantasia (鬼馬狂想曲)
2004 February 3 Protege de la Rose Noire (見習黑玫瑰)
2004 April 8 Love on Rocks (戀情告急)
2004 August 6 Twins Effect II (千機變II: 花都大戰)
2004 November 25 6 AM (大無謂)
2005 March 24 House of Fury (精武家庭)
2005 July 21 Bug Me Not! (蟲不知)
2007 February 15 Twins Mission (雙子神偷)
2002 January 24 U-Man (怪獸學園)
2002 September 5 If You Care (賤精先生)
2003 June 12 Happy Go Lucky (低一點天空)
2003 June 20 Color of the Truth (黑白森林)
2003 October 23 The Spy Dad (絕種鐡金剛)
2004 April 23 Moving Target (新紥師兄)
2004 November 11 Beyond Our Ken (公主復仇記)
2006 February 17 49 Days (犀照)
2001 April 26 Heroes in Love (戀愛起義)
2001 September 25 Funeral March (常在我心)
2002 September 25 My Wife is 18 (我老婆唔够秤)
2003 March 13 Diva, Ah Hey! (下一站,天后)
2003 July 25 Good Times, Bed Times (戀上你的床)
2004 March 27 Papa Loves You (這個阿爸真爆炸)
2004 August 19 Hidden Heroes (追擊八月十五)
2004 September 24 New Police Story (新警察故事)
2004 September 28 The Attractive One (身驕肉貴)
2004 November 18 Leave Me Alone (阿孖有難)
2005 October 20 All About Love (再說一次我愛你)
2005 December 22 A Chinese Tall Story (情顛大聖)
2006 September 29 Rob-B-Hood (寶貝計劃)
2006 October 26 Diary (妄想)
2007 April 4 Super Fans (甜心粉絲王)
2007 June 19 Simply Actors (戲王之王) Film Collections
Television Shows (Gillian only):
Television Shows (Charlene only):

February 2002 The Great Monkey King Suen Wu Kong (齊天大聖孫悟空)
May 2003 Midnight - Stuck In The Lift (2半3更之困車立)
October 2003 Triumph In The Skies (衝上雲霄)
September 2003 Kung Fu Soccer (功夫足球)
December 2004 Sunshine Heartbeat (赤沙印记@四叶草2)
May 2007 Ying Ye San Jia Yi'(樱野3加1)
Flying Fox of the Snowy Mountain (雪山飛狐) (2007)
Project A (A計劃) (2007)
The Spirit Of The Sword(浣花洗劍錄) (Coming Soon)
Y2K (青春Y2K)(2000) Television Show Collections

2002 September 13-15 Ichiban Amazing Show (Twins Ichiban 興奮演唱會)
2003 January 18-19 Matsunichi Twins Guangzhou Amazing Show (松日Twins廣州興奮演唱會)
2003 June 25 Tou Hao Ren Wu Chang Hao Music Concert (頭號人物唱好音樂會)
2003 August 2 Netvigator NETCash Pop-up Concert ( 網上行叱吒樂壇Pop-Up音樂會)
2003 December 31 - 2004 January 4 Matsunichi Twins 04 Concert (Twins 04 好玩演唱會)
2005 June 3 Starlight Amusement Park Concert (Australia)
2006 January 4-7 Twins Star Mobile Incomparable Concert (Twins 星Mobile 一時無兩演唱會)
2006 August 18-19 Twins Concert in Genting Malaysia
2007 September 15 Twins in Concert Cow Palace, San Francisco/Daly City USA[2]
2007 September 22-23 Twins Concert in Atlantic City USA Concerts

2001 November Twins 1+1 Photo Album' 96 pages
2001 August Twins Love The Colorful Travel 112 pages
2003 August Twins Love Hong Kong 112 pages

2008-04-26T08:58:00.001-07:00

H.261 is a 1990 ITU-T video coding standard originally designed for transmission over ISDN lines on which data rates are multiples of 64 kbit/s. It is one member of the H.26x family of video coding standards in the domain of the ITU-T Video Coding Experts Group (VCEG). The coding algorithm was designed to be able to operate at video bit rates between 40 kbit/s and 2 Mbit/s. The standard supports two video frame sizes: CIF (352x288 luma with 176x144 chroma) and QCIF (176x144 with 88x72 chroma) using a 4:2:0 sampling scheme. It also has a backward-compatible trick for sending still picture graphics with 704x576 luma resolution and 352x288 chroma resolution (which was added in a later revision in 1993).

H.261 design

The LGPL-licensed libavcodec includes a H.261 encoder and decoder. It is used in many programs like in the free VLC media player and MPlayer multimedia players, and in ffdshow and FFmpeg decoders projects

2008-04-25T08:46:00.001-07:00

Shalako is a 1968 western film starring Sean Connery and Brigitte Bardot. Stephen Boyd portrayed a classic western villain. Jack Hawkins played an upper class Englishman abroad in the 'new' country. Honor Blackman portrayed an English lady.

2008-04-24T10:36:00.000-07:00

This article is about the city in Spain; for other uses, see Cadiz (disambiguation).
Cádiz is a city and port in southwestern Spain. It is the capital of the province of the same name, a province which is one of the eight comprising the autonomous community of Andalusia.
Cádiz, the oldest continuously-inhabited city in western Europe, has been a principal home port of the Spanish Navy since the accession of the Spanish Bourbons in the 18th century. It is also the site of the University of Cádiz.
Its peculiar location at the end of a narrow "peninsula" protruding into the Bay of Cádiz lends added charm to this ancient city. In actuality, Cádiz is on an island which is separated from the mainland by a larger island, the Isla de Léon; thus, to reach the mainland from Cádiz, it is necessary to cross a narrow channel to the low-lying Isla de Léon, before crossing another narrow channel to the mainland. This geographical circumstance has played, time and again, a significant part in the city's history, commerce, and culture. Isolated behind its high thick medieval walls on its improbable site in the middle of the bay, Cádiz, on approach from the sea, presents a dramatic and aesthetically appealing view.
Despite its unique site, Cadiz is, in most respects, a typically Andalusian city with a wealth of attractive vistas and well-preserved historical landmarks. The older part of Cádiz, within the remnants of the city walls, is commonly referred to as the Old City (in Spanish, Casco Antiguo). It is characterized by the antiquity of its various quarters (barrios), among them El Populo, La Viña, and Santa Maria, which present a marked contrast to the newer areas of town. While the Old City's street plan consists largely of narrow winding alleys connecting large plazas, newer areas of Cádiz typically have wide avenues and more modern buildings. In addition, the city is dotted by numerous parks where exotic plants, including giant trees supposedly brought to Spain by Columbus, flourish.

Etymology of the city's name
According to the 2006 census, the population of Cádiz proper was 130,561, and the population of the entire metropolitan area was estimated to be 629,054. Cádiz is the seventeenth largest Spanish city. However, in recent years, the city has been steadily losing population; it is the only municipality of the Bay of Cádiz (the comarca composed of Cádiz, Chiclana, El Puerto de Santa María, Puerto Real, and San Fernando), whose population has diminished. Between 1995 and 2006, it lost more than 14,000 inhabitants, a decrease of 9%.
Among the causes of this loss of population is the peculiar geography of Cádiz; the city lies on a narrow spit of land hemmed-in by the sea. Consequently, there is a pronounced shortage of buildable land. The city has very little vacant land, and a high proportion of its housing stock is relatively low in density. (That is to say, many buildings are only two or three stories tall, and they are only able to house a relatively small number of people within their "footprint".) The older quarters of Cádiz are full of buildings that, because of their age and historical significance, are not eligible for urban renewal. Replacement of these old buildings with high-density apartment projects would allow Cádiz to sustain a higher population.
142,449

Source: INE (Spain)
Two other physical factors tend to limit the city's population. It is impossible to increase the amount of land available for building by reclaiming land from the sea; a new national law governing coastal development thwarts this solution. Also, because Cádiz is built on a sandspit, it is a costly proposition to sink foundations deep enough to support the high-rise buildings that would allow for a higher population density. As it stands, the city's skyline is not substantially different than it was in medieval times. A seventeenth-century watchtower, the Tavira tower, still commands a panoramic view of the city and the bay despite its relatively modest 45-metre height. (See below.)
Cádiz is the provincial capital with the highest rate of unemployment in Spain. This, too, tends to depress the population level. Young Gaditanos, those between 18 and 30 years of age, have been migrating, to other places in Spain (Madrid and Castellón, chiefly), as well as emigrating to other places in Europe and the Americas. The population younger than twenty years old is only 20.58% of the total, and the population older than sixty-five is 21.67%, making Cádiz one of the most aged cities in all of Spain.
Despite these trends, some are cheered by the fact that the other towns and cities surrounding the Bay of Cádiz are growing modestly, absorbing some of the population fleeing the capital. Improvements in roads and railways have allowed people to commute to Cádiz for work more easily. Increasingly, outlying communities, like Puerto Real and San Fernando, are providing bedrooms for Cádiz's workforce. In recent years, Cádiz has become more of a place to work than a place to live.

Population and demographic trends
The city was originally founded as Gadir (Phoenician גדר "walled city") by the Phoenicians, who used it in their trade with Tartessos, a city-state believed by archæologists to be somewhere near the mouth of the Guadalquivir River, about thirty kilometres northwest of Cádiz. (Its exact location has never been firmly established.)
Cádiz is the most ancient city still standing in western Europe It is a connection that continutes to this day.
Cádiz was also the seat of the liberal Cortes (parliament) that fought against Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte (also known as Joseph I of Spain) in the Peninsular War and where the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed. The citizens again revolted in 1820 to secure a renewal of this constitution; the revolution spread across Spain, leading to the imprisonment of King Ferdinand VII in the city of Cádiz. French forces secured the release of Ferdinand in 1823 and suppressed liberalism. In 1868, Cádiz was once again the seat of a revolution, resulting in the eventual abdication and exile of Queen Isabella II. (The same Cádiz Cortes decided to reinstate the monarchy under King Amadeo I just two years later.)
In recent years, the city has undergone much reconstruction. Many monuments, cathedrals, and landmarks have been cleaned and restored, adding to the considerable charm of this ancient city.

History

Main article: Diocese of Cadiz y Ceuta Diocese
Among the many landmarks of historical and scenic interest in Cadiz, a few stand out. The city can boast of an unusual cathedral of various architectural styles, a magnificent theatre, an attractive old municipal building, an eighteenth-century watchtower, a vestige of the ancient city wall, an ancient Roman theatre, and electrical pylons of an eye-catching modern design carrying cables across the Bay of Cadiz.

Major landmarks

Landmark Buildings
One of Cádiz's most famous landmarks is its cathedral. It sits on the site of an older cathedral, completed in 1260, which burned down in 1596. The reconstruction, which was not started until 1776, was supervised by the architect Vicente Acero, who had also built the Granada Cathedral. Acero left the project and was succeeded by several other architects. As a result, this largely baroque-style cathedral was built over a period of 116 years, and, due to this drawn-out period of construction, the cathedral underwent several major changes to its original design. Though the cathedral was originally intended to be a baroque edifice, it contains rococo elements, and was finally completed in the neoclassical style. Its chapels have many paintings and relics from the old cathedral and monasteries from throughout Spain.

The Gran Teatro Falla (Falla Grand Theatre)
In the 18th century, Cádiz had more than 160 towers from which local merchants could look out to sea for arriving merchant ships. These towers often formed part of the merchants' houses. The Torre Tavira, named for its original owner, stands as the tallest remaining watchtower. It has a cámara oscura, a room that uses the principal of the pinhole camera (and a specially-prepared convex lens) to project panoramic views of the Old City onto its interior walls. (Also see the article titled Widow's walk.)

The Tavira tower
The Casa del Almirante is a palatial house, adjacent to the Plaza San Martín in the Barrio del Pópulo, which was constructed in 1690 with the proceeds of the lucrative trade with the Americas. It was built by the family of the admiral of the Spanish treasure fleet, the so-called Fleet of the Indies, Don Diego de Barrios. The exterior is sheathed in exquisite red and white Genoan marble, prepared in the workshops of Andreoli, and mounted by the master, García Narváez. The colonnaded portico, the grand staircase under the cupola, and the hall on the main floor are architectural features of great nobility and beauty. The shield of the Barrios family appears on the second-floor balcony.

The Admiral's House
The old town of Cadiz is one of the most densely populated urban areas in Europe, and is packed with narrow streets. The old town benefits though from five striking plazas, which are enjoyed by citizens and tourists alike. These are Plaza de Mina, Plaza San Antonio, Plaza de Candelaria, Plaza de San Juan de Dios and Plaza de España.

The Plazas

Located in the heart of the old town, Plaza de Mina, (the most beautiful of the Cadiz plazas) was developed in the first half of the nineteenth century. Previously, the land occupied by the plaza was the orchard of the convent of San Francisco. The plaza, was converted into a plaza in 1838 by the architect Torcuato Benjumeda and (later) Juan Daura, with its trees being planted in 1861. It was then redeveloped again in 1897, and has remained virtually unchanged since. It is named after General Francisco Espoz y Mina, a hero of the war of independence. Manuel de Falla y Matheu was born in Number 3 Plaza de Mina, where a plaque bears his name. The plaza also contains several statues, one of these is a bust of José Macpherson (a pioneer in the development of petrography, stratigraphy and tectonics) who was born in number 12 Plaza de Mina in 1839. The Museum of Cadiz, is to be found at number 5 Plaza de Mina, and contains many objects from Cadiz's 3000 year history as well as works by artists such as Peter Paul Rubens. The houses which face the plaza, many of which can be classified as neo-classical architecture or built in the style of Isabelline Gothic, were originally occupied by the Cadiz bourgeoisie.

Plaza de Mina

In the 19th century Plaza San Antonio was considered to Cadiz's main square. It is a beautiful square, surrounded by a number of mansions built in neo-classical architecture or Isabelline Gothic style, once occupied by the Cadiz upper classes. San Antonio church, originally built in 1669, is also situated in the plaza,

The plaza was built in the 18th century, and on 19 March 1812 the Spanish Constitution of 1812 was proclaimed here, leading to the plaza to be named Plaza de la Constitución, and then later Plaza San Antonio, after the hermit San Antonio.

Plaza San Antonio

The Plaza de Candelaria is named after the Candelaria convent, situated in the square until it was demolished in 1873, when its grounds were redeveloped as a plaza. The plaza is notable for a statue in its centre of Emilio Castelar, president of the first Spanish republic, who was born in a house facing the square. A plaque situated on another house, states that the Irish-Spanish adventurer en:Bernardo O'Higgins and former dictator of Chile also lived in the square.

Plaza de Candelaria

Construction of this plaza began in the 15th century on lands reclaimed from the sea. With the demolition of the City walls in 1906 the plaza increased in size and a statue of the Cadiz politician Segismundo Moret was unveiled. Overlooking the plaza, the Ayuntamiento is the town hall of Cádiz's Old City. The structure, constructed on the bases and location of the previous Consistorial Houses (1699), was built in two stages. The first stage began in 1799 under the direction of architect Torcuato Benjumeda in the neoclassical style. The second stage was completed in 1861 under the direction of García del Alamo, in the Isabelline Gothic (in Spanish, "Gótico Isabelino" or, simply, the "Isabelino") style. Here, in 1936, the flag of Andalusia was hoisted for the first time.

Plaza de San Juan de Dios and the Old Town Hall

The Plaza de España is a large square close to the port. It is dominated by the Monument to the Constitution of 1812, which came into being as a consequence of the demolition of a portion of the old city wall. The plaza is an extension of the old Plazuela del Carbón. The goal of this demolition was to create a grand new city square to mark the hundredth anniverary of the liberal constitution, which was proclaimed in this city in 1812, and provide a setting for a suitable memorial. The work is by the architect, Modesto Lopez Otero, and of the sculptor, Aniceto Marinas. The work began in 1912 and finished in 1929.

The lower level of the monument represents a chamber and an empty presidential armchair. The upper level has various inscriptions surmounting the chamber. On each side are bronze figures representing peace and war. In the center, a pilaster rises to symbolize, in allegorical terms, the principals expressed in the 1812 constitution. At the foot of this pilaster, there is a female figure representing Spain, and, to either side, scuptural groupings representing agriculture and citizenship.

Plaza de España and the monument to the constitution of 1812

The City Walls
Las Puertas de Tierra originated in the 16th century, although much of the original work has disappeared. Once consisting of several layers of walls, only one of these remain today. By the 20th century it was necessary to remodel the entrance to the Old City to accommodate modern traffic. Today, the two side-by-side arches cut into the wall serve as one of the primary entrances to the city.

The old city wall
The Baluarte de la Candelaria (fortress or stronghold of Candlemas) is a military fortification. Taking advantage of a natural elevation of land, it was constructed in 1672 at the initiative of the governor, Diego Caballero de Illescas. Protected by a seaward-facing wall that had previously served as a seawall, Candelaria's cannons were in a position to command the channels approaching the port of Cádiz. In more recent times, the edifice has served as a headquarters for the corps of military engineers and as the home to the army's homing pigeons, birds used to carry written messages over hostile terrain. Thoroughly renovated, it is now used as a cultural venue. There has been some discussion of using it to house a maritime museum, but, at present, it is designated for use as a permanent exposition space.

The fortress of Candelaria
In 1980, in the El Pópulo district of Cádiz, there was a fire in some old warehouses belonging to a company called Vigorito, SA, causing catastrophic damage. In the aftermath of the fire, an exciting discovery was made: the remains of an ancient Roman theatre. The fire had destroyed the warehouses revealing a layer of construction that was judged to be the foundations of some medieval buildings; the foundations of these buildings had been built, in turn, upon much more ancient stones, hand-hewn limestone of a Roman character. Systematic excavations, which still continue, have revealed a largely in-tact Roman theatre.
The theatre, constructed by order of Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor) during the first century BCE, is the second largest Roman theatre in the world, surpassed only by the theater of Pompeii, south of Rome. Cicero, in "Epistulae ad Familiares" (Letters to his friends), wrote of its use by Balbo for personal propaganda.
According to archaeologists, this discovery confirms the greatness of the Roman city of Gades. The ancient city had a population even greater than the 80,000 people who lived in Cádiz during the sixteenth and seventeenth century, when the city dominated trans-Atlantic commerce, and it was one of the most prosperous cities of the Roman empire.

The Roman theatre
The Pylons of Cádiz are electricity pylons of unusual design, one on either side of the Bay of Cádiz, used to support huge electric-power cables. The pylons are 158 metres high and designed for two circuits. The very unconventional construction consists of a narrow frustum steel framework with one crossbar at the top of each one for the insulators.

The pylons of Cádiz
Cádiz, situated on a peninsula[3], is home to some of Spain's most beautiful beaches.
La Playa de la Caleta is the best-loved beach of Cádiz. It has always been in Carnival songs, due to its unequalled beauty and its proximity to the Barrio de la Viña. It is the beach of the Old City, situated between two castles, San Sebastian and Santa Catalina. It is around four hundred meters long and thirty meters wide at low tide. Also, the James Bond movie, Die Another Day, was filmed here. (It was supposed to be Cuba.)
La Playa de la Victoria, in the newer part of Cádiz, is the beach most visited by tourists and natives of Cádiz. It is about three kilometers long, and it has an average width of fifty meters of sand. The moderate swell and the absence of rocks allow family bathing. It is separated from the city by an avenue; on the landward side of the avenue, there are many shops and restaurants.
La Playa de Santa María del Mar or Playita de las Mujeres is a small beach in Cádiz, situated between La Playa de Victoria and La Playa de la Caleta. It features excellent views of the old district of Cádiz.

Beaches

Main article: Carnival of Cádiz Sister cities

Battle of Cadiz
Cádiz Club de Futbol
Costa de la Luz

2008-04-23T08:09:00.001-07:00

This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. WikiProject Physics or the Physics Portal may be able to help recruit one. If a more appropriate WikiProject or portal exists, please adjust this template accordingly. In physics, light loses energy when it moves away from a massive body such as a star or a black hole; this effect reveals itself as a gravitational redshift in the frequency of the light, and is observable as a shift of spectral lines towards the longer, or "red," end of the spectrum.
Light coming from a region of weaker gravity shows a gravitational blueshift.

Definition
The gravitational weakening of light from high-gravity stars was predicted by John Michell in 1783, using Isaac Newton's concept of light as being composed of ballistic light corpuscles (see: emission theory). The effect of gravity on light was then explored by Laplace and Johann Georg von Soldner (1801) before Einstein rederived the idea from scratch in his 1911 paper on light and gravitation.
Einstein was accused by Philipp Lenard of plagiarism for not citing Soldner's earlier work - however, given that the idea had fallen so far into obscurity before Einstein resurrected it, it is entirely possible that Einstein was unaware of all previous work on the subject. In any case, Einstein went further and pointed out that a key consequence of gravitational shifts was gravitational time dilation. This was a genuinely new and revolutionary idea.

History

The receiving end of the light transmission must be located at a higher gravitational potential in order for gravitational redshift to be observed. In other words, the observer must be standing "uphill" from the source.
Tests done by many universities continue to support the existence of gravitational redshift.
Gravitational redshift is not only predicted by general relativity. Other theories of gravitation support gravitational redshift, although their explanations for why it appears vary.
Gravitational redshift does not assume the Schwarzschild metric solution to Einstein's field equation - in which the variable cannot represent the mass of any rotating or charged body. Important things to stress
Gravitational redshift was first observed in the spectral lines of the star Sirius B by Adams in 1925, although this measurement was criticized as possibly flawed, since it was difficult to rule out a shift of the spectral lines in the atmosphere of a white dwarf by some other (possibly unrecognized) effect.
The Pound-Rebka experiment of 1959 definitively measured the gravitational redshift in spectral lines. This was documented by scientists of the Lyman Laboratory of Physics at Harvard University.
More information can be seen at Tests of general relativity.

Initial verification
Gravitational redshift is studied in many areas of astrophysical research.

Application
A table of exact solutions for gravitational redshift consists of the following:
The more often used exact solution is for gravitational redshift of non-rotating, uncharged masses which are spherically symmetric. The equation for this is:
, where

is the gravitational constant,
is the mass of the object creating the gravitational field,
is the radial coordinate of the observer (which is analogous to the classical distance from the center of the object, but is actually a Schwarzschild coordinate), and
is the speed of light.

2008-04-22T09:52:00.001-07:00

Amedeo Clemente Modigliani (July 12, 1884 – January 24, 1920) was an Italian artist, practicing both painting and sculpture, who pursued his career for the most part in France. Modigliani was born in Livorno (historically referred to in English as Leghorn), in Central Italy and began his artistic studies in Italy before moving to Paris in 1906. Influenced by the artists in his circle of friends and associates, by a range of genres and art movements, and by primitive art, Modigliani's œuvre was nonetheless unique and idiosyncratic. He died in Paris of tubercular meningitis— exacerbated by poverty, overworking, and an excessive use of alcohol and narcotics — at the age of 35.

Early life
Modigliani is known to have drawn and painted from a very early age, and thought himself "already a painter", his mother wrote, even before beginning formal studies. Despite her misgivings that launching him on a course of studying art would impinge upon his other studies, his mother indulged the young Modigliani's passion for the subject.
At the age of fourteen, while sick with the typhoid fever, he raved in his delirium that he wanted, above all else, to see the paintings in the Palazzo Pitti and the Uffizi in Florence. As Livorno's local museum only housed a sparse few paintings by the Italian Renaissance masters, the tales he had heard about the great works held in Florence intrigued him, and it was a source of considerable despair to him, in his sickened state, that he might never get the chance to view them in person. His mother promised that she would take him to Florence herself, the moment he was recovered. Not only did she fulfil this promise, but she also undertook to enrol him with the best painting master in Livorno, Guglielmo Micheli.

Art student years
Modigliani worked in Micheli's Art School from 1898 to 1900. Here his earliest formal artistic instruction took place in an atmosphere deeply steeped in a study of the styles and themes of nineteenth-century Italian art. In his earliest Parisian work, traces of this influence, and that of his studies of Renaissance art, can still be seen: artists such as Giovanni Boldini figure just as much in this nascent work as do those of Toulouse-Lautrec.
Modigliani showed great promise while with Micheli, and only ceased his studies when he was forced to, by the onset of tuberculosis.
In 1901, whilst in Rome, Modigliani admired the work of Domenico Morelli, a painter of melodramatic Biblical studies and scenes from great literature. It is ironic that he should be so struck by Morelli, as this painter had served as an inspiration for a group of iconoclasts who went by the title, the Macchiaioli (from macchia—"dash of colour", or, more derogatively, "stain"), and Modigliani had already been exposed to the influences of the Macchiaioli. This minor, localized art movement was possessed of a need to react against the bourgeois stylings of the academic genre painters. While sympathetically connected to (and actually pre-dating) the French Impressionists, the Macchiaioli did not make the same impact upon international art culture as did the followers of Monet, and are today largely forgotten outside of Italy.
Modigliani's connection with the movement was through Guglielmo Micheli, his first art teacher. Micheli was not only a Macchiaioli himself, but had been a pupil of the famous Giovanni Fattori, a founder of the movement. Micheli's work, however, was so fashionable and the genre so commonplace that the young Modigliani reacted against it, preferring to ignore the obsession with landscape that, as with French Impressionism, characterized the movement. Micheli also tried to encourage his pupils to paint en plein air, but Modigliani never really got a taste for this style of working, sketching in cafés, but preferring to paint indoors, and especially in his own studio. Even when compelled to paint landscapes (three are known to exist),
In 1902, Modigliani continued what was to be a life-long infatuation with life drawing, enrolling in the Accademia di Belle Arti (Scuola Libera di Nudo, or "Free School of Nude Studies") in Florence. A year later while still suffering from tuberculosis, he moved to Venice, where he registered to study at the Istituto di Belle Arti.
It is in Venice that he first smoked hashish and, rather than studying, began to spend time frequenting disreputable parts of the city. The impact of these lifestyle choices upon his developing artistic style is open to conjecture, although these choices do seem to be more than simple teenage rebellion, or the cliched hedonism and bohemianism that was almost expected of artists of the time; his pursuit of the seedier side of life appears to have roots in his appreciation of radical philosophies, such as those of Nietzsche.

Micheli and the Macchiaioli
Having been exposed to erudite philosophical literature as a young boy under the tutelage of Isaco Garsin, his maternal grandfather, he continued to read and be influenced through his art studies by the writings of Nietzsche, Baudelaire, Carducci, Comte de Lautréamont, and others, and developed the belief that the only route to true creativity was through defiance and disorder.
Letters that he wrote from his 'sabbatical' in Capri in 1901 clearly indicate that he is being more and more influenced by the thinking of Nietzsche. In these letters, he advised friend Oscar Ghiglia,
The work of Lautréamont was equally influential at this time. This doomed poet's Les Chants de Maldoror became the seminal work for the Parisian Surrealists of Modigliani's generation, and the book became Modigliani's favourite to the extent that he learnt it by heart.

Early literary influences

Paris
In 1906 Modigliani moved to Paris, then the focal point of the avant-garde. In fact, his arrival at the epicentre of artistic experimentation coincided with the arrival of two other foreigners who were also to leave their marks upon the art world: Gino Severini and Juan Gris.
He settled in Le Bateau-Lavoir, a commune for penniless artists in Montmartre, renting himself a studio in Rue Caulaincourt. Even though this artists' quarter of Montmartre was characterized by generalized poverty, Modigliani himself presented - initially, at least - as one would expect the son of a family trying to maintain the appearances of its lost financial standing to present: his wardrobe was dapper without ostentation, and the studio he rented was appointed in a style appropriate to someone with a finely attuned taste in plush drapery and Renaissance reproductions. He soon made efforts to assume the guise of the bohemian artist, but, even in his brown corduroys, scarlet scarf and large black hat, he continued to appear as if he were slumming it, having fallen upon harder times.

Arrival
Within a year of arriving in Paris, however, his demeanour and reputation had changed dramatically. He transformed himself from a dapper academician artist into a sort of prince of vagabonds.
The poet and journalist Louis Latourette, upon visiting the artist's previously well-appointed studio after his transformation, discovered the place in upheaval, the Renaissance reproductions discarded from the walls, the plush drapes in disarray. Modigliani was already an alcoholic and a drug addict by this time, and his studio reflected this. Modigliani's behaviour at this time sheds some light upon his developing style as an artist, in that the studio had become almost a sacrificial effigy for all that he resented about the academic art that had marked his life and his training up to that point.
Not only did he remove all the trappings of his bourgeois heritage from his studio, but he also set about destroying practically all of his own early work. He explained this extraordinary course of actions to his astonished neighbours thus:
The motivation for this violent rejection of his earlier self is the subject of considerable speculation. The self-destructive tendencies may have stemmed from his tuberculosis and the knowledge (or presumption) that the disease had essentially marked him for an early death; within the artists' quarter, many faced the same sentence, and the typical response was to set about enjoying life while it lasted, principally by indulging in self-destructive actions. For Modigliani such behavior may have been a response to a lack of recognition; it is known that he sought the company of other alcoholic artists such as Utrillo and Soutine, seeking acceptance and validation for his work from his colleagues. that it is entirely possible for Modigliani to have achieved even greater artistic heights had he not been immured in, and destroyed by, his own self-indulgences. We can only speculate what he might have accomplished had he emerged intact from his self-destructive explorations.

Transformation
During his early years in Paris, Modigliani worked at a furious pace. He was constantly sketching, making as many as a hundred drawings a day. However, many of his works were lost - destroyed by him as inferior, left behind in his frequent changes of address, or given to girlfriends who did not keep them. Tall (Modigliani was only 5 foot 5 inches) with dark hair (like Modigliani's), pale skin and grey-green eyes, she embodied Modigliani's aesthetic ideal and the pair became engrossed in each other. After a year, however, Anna returned to her husband.

Output
In 1909, Modigliani returned home to Livorno, sickly and tired from his wild lifestyle. Soon he was back in Paris, this time renting a studio in Montparnasse. He originally saw himself as a sculptor rather than a painter, and was encouraged to continue after Paul Guillaume, an ambitious young art dealer, took an interest in his work and introduced him to sculptor Constantin Brancusi.
Although a series of Modigliani's sculptures were exhibited in the Salon d'Automne of 1912, by 1914 he abandoned sculpting and focused solely on his painting, a move precipitated by the difficulty in acquiring stone, and by Modigliani's physical debilitation.

Sculpture
In Modigliani's art, there is evidence of the influence of primitive art from Africa and Cambodia which he may have seen in the Musée de l'Homme, but his stylizations are just as likely to have been the result of his being surrounded by Mediæval sculpture during his studies in Northern Italy (there is no recorded information from Modigliani himself, as there is with Picasso and others, to confirm the contention that he was influenced by either ethnic or any other kind of sculpture). A possible interest in African tribal masks seems to be evident in his portraits. In both his painting and sculpture, the sitters' faces resemble ancient Egyptian painting in their flat and mask-like appearance, with distinctive almond eyes, pursed mouths, twisted noses, and elongated necks. However these same characteristics are shared by Mediæval European sculpture and painting.
Modigliani painted a series of portraits of contemporary artists and friends in Montparnasse: Chaim Soutine, Moise Kisling, Pablo Picasso, Diego Rivera, Marie "Marevna" Vorobyev-Stebeslka, Juan Gris, Max Jacob, Blaise Cendrars, and Jean Cocteau, all sat for stylized renditions.
At the outset of World War I, Modigliani tried to enlist in the army but was refused because of his poor health.

Question of influences
Known as Modì, which translates as 'cursed' (maudit), by many Parisians, but as Dedo to his family and friends, Modigliani was a handsome man, and attracted much female attention.
Women came and went until Beatrice Hastings entered his life. She stayed with him for almost two years, was the subject for several of his portraits, including Madame Pompadour, and the object of much of his drunken wrath.
When the British painter Nina Hamnett arrived in Montparnasse in 1914, on her first evening there the smiling man at the next table in the café introduced himself as Modigliani; painter and Jew. They became great friends.
In 1916, Modigliani befriended the Polish poet and art dealer Leopold Zborovski and his wife Anna.

The war years
The following summer, the Russian sculptor Chana Orloff introduced him to a beautiful 19-year-old art student named Jeanne Hébuterne who had posed for Tsuguharu Foujita. From a conservative bourgeois background, Hébuterne was renounced by her devout Roman Catholic family for her liaison with the painter, whom they saw as little more than a debauched derelict, and, worse yet, a Jew. Despite her family's objections, soon they were living together, and although Hébuterne was the love of his life, their public scenes became more renowned than Modigliani's individual drunken exhibitions.
On December 3, 1917, Modigliani's first one-man exhibition opened at the Berthe Weill Gallery. The chief of the Paris police was scandalized by Modigliani's nudes and forced him to close the exhibition within a few hours after its opening.
After he and Hébuterne moved to Nice, she became pregnant and on November 29, 1918 gave birth to a daughter whom they named Jeanne (1918-1984).

Jeanne Hébuterne
During a trip to Nice, conceived and organized by Leopold Zborovski, Modigliani, Foujita and other artists tried to sell their works to rich tourists. Modigliani managed to sell a few pictures but only for a few francs each. Despite this, during this time he produced most of the paintings that later became his most popular and valued works.
During his lifetime he sold a number of his works, but never for any great amount of money. What funds he did receive soon vanished for his habits.
In May of 1919 he returned to Paris, where, with Hébuterne and their daughter, he rented an apartment in the rue de la Grande Chaumière. While there, both Jeanne Hébuterne and Amedeo Modigliani painted portraits of each other, and of themselves.

Nice
Although he continued to paint, Modigliani's health was deteriorating rapidly, and his alcohol-induced blackouts became more frequent.
In 1920, after not hearing from him for several days, his downstairs neighbor checked on the family and found Modigliani in bed delirious and holding onto Hébuterne who was nearly nine months pregnant. They summoned a doctor, but little could be done because Modigliani was dying of the then-incurable disease tubercular meningitis.
Modigliani died on January 24, 1920. There was an enormous funeral, attended by many from the artistic communities in Montmartre and Montparnasse.
Hébuterne was taken to her parents' home, where, inconsolable, she threw herself out of a fifth-floor window two days after Modigliani's death, killing herself and her unborn child. Modigliani was interred in Père Lachaise Cemetery. Hébuterne was buried at the Cimetière de Bagneux near Paris, and it was not until 1930 that her embittered family allowed her body to be moved to rest beside Modigliani.
Modigliani died penniless and destitute—managing only one solo exhibition in his life and giving his work away in exchange for meals in restaurants. Had he lived through the 1920s when American buyers flooded Paris, his fortunes might well have changed. Since his death his reputation has soared. Nine novels, a play, a documentary and three feature films have been devoted to his life.

Death

Painting the Century 101 Portrait Masterpieces 1900-2000 Selected paintings
(Only 27 sculptures by Modigliani are known to exist.)

Head of a Woman (1910/1911).
Head (1911-1913).
Head (1911-1912).
Head (1912).
Rose Caryatid (1914).

2008-04-21T09:44:00.001-07:00

The DD postcode area, also known as the Dundee postcode area, is a group of postal districts around Arbroath, Brechin, Carnoustie, Dundee, Forfar, Kirriemuir, Montrose, Newport-on-Tay and Tayport in Scotland.

Coverage

2008-04-20T08:32:00.001-07:00

In music, the adjectives major and minor can describe a scale, key, chord, or interval. For intervals, the terms refer to a difference in their relative width, major referring to notes somewhat further apart; the other terms are classifications based on the use of certain intervals, especially the major or minor third.
Major and minor are frequently referred to in the titles of compositions in their foreign language form, especially in reference to the key of a piece.

Major and minor scales

Relative key
Parallel key
Major/minor (tonal structure)

2008-04-19T09:17:00.001-07:00

The American Historical Review (AHR) is the official publication of the American Historical Association (AHA), a body of academics, professors, teachers, students, historians, curators and others, founded in 1884 "for the promotion of historical studies, the collection and preservation of historical documents and artifacts, and the dissemination of historical research." The AHR targets readers interested in all periods and facets of history, not (as some might assume, given the name) only or even primarily those with a professional interest in American History.
The AHR is published in February, April, June, October and December as a book-like academic publication with research papers and book reviews, among other items (each issue typically runs to about 400 pages). Each year in the AHR there are approximately 25 articles and review essays and 1,000 book reviews. Founded in 1895, it refers to itself as the "journal of record for the history profession in the United States", and has approximately 18,000 subscribers, mostly university and college libraries and history professors.
The AHR's editorial offices are located at Indiana University at Bloomington, where a small staff produces the publication under the guidance of a 12-member advisory board.

2008-04-18T10:35:00.001-07:00

This is a list of jazz organists.

TW Ardy
Booker T & the MGs
Brian Auger
Count Basie
Carla Bley
Andre Brasseur
James Brown
Milt Buckner
Doug Carn
Mike Carr
Jimmy Carter, jazz organist
Clifton "Jiggs" Chase
Call Cobbs, Jr.
Ray Colignon
Alice Coltrane
Tom Coster
Wild Bill Davis
Joey DeFrancesco
Barbara Dennerlein
Bill Doggett
Charles Earland
Georgie Fame
Mito Garcia
Larry Goldings
"Sir Julian" Gould
Chris Hamalton
Milt Herth
Danny Hodgson
Richard "Groove" Holmes
John Hondorp
Wayne Horvitz
Will Horwell
Keith Jarrett
Wojciech Karolak
Bruce Katz
Eddie Landsberg
Eddie Layton
Ed Lincoln
Jack McDuff
Jimmy McGriff
John Medeski
Paolo Negri
Don Paterson
John Patton
Andre Penazzi
Lucky Peterson
Trudy Pitts
Alan Price
Don Pullen
Mac "Dr. John" Rebbenack
Mel Rhyne
Merl Saunders
Rhoda Scott
Shirley Scott
Ethel Smith
Jimmy Smith
Dr. Lonnie Smith
Harry Stoneham
James Taylor
Sir Charles Thompson
Paul Wagnberg
Cherry Wainer
Fats Waller
Robert Walter
Walter Wanderley
Otto Weiss
Baby Face Willette
Klaus Wunderlich
Larry Young
Joe Zawinul

2008-04-17T09:20:00.001-07:00

Satire is strictly a literary genre, although it is found in the graphic and performing arts as well as the printed word. In satire, human or individual vices, follies, abuses, or shortcomings are held up to censure by means of ridicule, derision, burlesque, irony, or other methods, ideally with an intent to bring about improvement.. This "militant irony" (or sarcasm) often professes to approve the very things the satirist actually wishes to attack.

Term
Satirical works often contain "straight" (non-satirical) humour - usually to give some relief from what might otherwise be relentless "preaching". This has always been the case, although it is probably more marked in modern satire. On the other hand some satire has little or no humour at all. It is not "funny" - and nor is it meant to be.
Humour about a particular subject (politics, religion and art for instance) is not necessarily satirical because the subject itself is often a subject of satire. Nor is humour using the great satiric tools of irony, parody, or burlesque always meant in a satirical sense.

Satire and Humour

Development
The Satire of the Trades (late 2nd millennium BC) contains the text of a satirical letter in which the writer at first praises the virtues but then mercilessly mocks the meagre knowledge and achievements of the recipient of the letter.

Ancient Egypt
The Greeks had no word for what later would be called a satire, although cynicism and parody were used. In retrospect, the Greek playwright Aristophanes is one of the best known early satirists; he is particularly famous for his political satire in which he criticized the powerful Cleon (as in The Knights) and for the persecution he underwent. The confusion with the satyr supported the understanding of satire as biting, like Juvenal, and not mild, like Horace, method of criticism in Early Modern Europe until the 17th century.
Criticism of Roman emperors (notably Augustus) needed to be presented in veiled ironical terms - but the term when applied to Latin works actually titled as "satires" is much wider than in the modern sense of the word, including fantastic and highly coloured humorous writing with little or no real mocking intent.
Prominent satirists from Roman antiquity include Horace and Juvenal, who were active during the early days of the Roman Empire and are the two most influential Latin satirists. Other important Roman satirists are Lucilius and Persius.

Greece and Ancient Rome
There are examples of satire from the Early Middle Ages, especially songs by goliards or vagants now best known as an anthology called Carmina Burana and made famous as texts of a composition by the 20th century composer Carl Orff. Satirical poetry is believed to have been popular, although little has survived. With the advent of the High Middle Ages and the birth of modern vernacular literature in the 12th century, it began to be used again, most notably by Chaucer. The disrespectful manner was considered "Unchristian" and ignored but for the moral satire, which mocked misbehavior in Christian terms. Examples are Livre des Manières (~1170), and in some of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. The epos was mocked, and even the feudal society, but there was hardly a general interest in the genre. After the Middle Ages in the Renaissance reawakening of Roman literary traditions, the satires Till Eulenspiegel and Reynard the Fox were published, and also in Sebastian Brant's Narrenschiff (1494), Erasmus' Moriae Encomium (1509) and Thomas More's Utopia (1516).

Middle Ages

Main article: Persian satire Persia
The Elizabethan (i.e. 16th century English) writers thought of satire as related to the notoriously rude, coarse and sharp satyr play. Elizabethan "satire" (typically in pamphlet form) therefore contains more straight forward abuse than subtle irony. The French Huguenot Isaac Casaubon pointed out in 1605 that satire in the Roman fashion was something altogether more civilised. 17th century English satire once again aimed at the "amendment of vices" (Dryden).
Direct social commentary via satire returned with a vengeance in the 16th century, when farcical texts such as the works of François Rabelais tackled more serious issues (and incurred the wrath of the crown as a result). In the Age of Enlightenment, an intellectual movement in the 17th and 18th century advocating rationality, began the breakthrough of English satire, largely due to the creation of Tory and Whig groups and the necessity to convey the true meaning of criticism, especially true for Daniel Defoe, Jonathan Swift, John Dryden and Alexander Pope. Here, astute and biting satire of institutions and individuals became a popular weapon. Although Isaac Casaubon discovered and published Quintilian's writing and presented the original meaning of the term (satira, not satyr), Early Modern satire was already an established genre, but the sense of wittiness (reflecting the "dishfull of fruits") became more important again.
Jonathan Swift was one of the greatest of Anglo-Irish satirists, and one of the first to practice modern journalistic satire. For instance, his A Modest Proposal suggests that poor Irish parents be encouraged to sell their own children as food, while his The Shortest-Way with the Dissenters suggests that dissenters (from established Church doctrine) be vigorously persecuted. Also in his book Gulliver's Travels he greatly suggests the flaws in human and english society. Swift creates a moral fiction, for instance a world in which parents do not have their most obvious responsibility, which is to protect their children from harm, or in which freedom of religion is reduced to the freedom to conform. His purpose is of course to attack indifference to the plight of the desperately poor, and to advocate freedom of conscience.
John Dryden also wrote an influential essay on satire that helped fix its definition in the literary world.

Early modern western satire
Ebenezer Cooke, author of "The Sot-Weed Factor," was among the first to bring satire to the British colonies; Benjamin Franklin and others followed, using satire to shape an emerging nation's culture through shaping its sense of the ridiculous.
Mark Twain was a great American satirist: his novel Huckleberry Finn is set in the antebellum South, where the moral values Twain wishes to promote are completely turned on their heads. His hero, Huck, is a rather simple but good-hearted lad who is ashamed of the "sinful temptation" that leads him to help a runaway slave. In fact his conscience – warped by the distorted moral world he has grown up in, often bothers him most when he is at his best. Ironically, he is prepared to do good, believing it to be wrong.
Twain's younger contemporary Ambrose Bierce gained notoriety as a cynic, pessimist and black humourist with his dark, bitterly ironic stories, many set during the American Civil War, which satirized the limitations of human perception and reason. Bierce's most famous work of satire is probably The Devil's Dictionary, in which the definitions mock cant, hypocrisy and received wisdom.

Anglo-American satire
Novelists such as Charles Dickens often used passages of satiric writing in their treatment of social issues. Several satiric papers competed for the public's attention in the Victorian era and Edwardian period, such as Punch and Fun.
Perhaps the most enduring examples of Victorian satire, however, are to be found in the Savoy Operas of W. S. Gilbert and Sir Arthur Sullivan. In fact, in The Yeomen of the Guard, a jester is given lines that paint a very neat picture of the method and purpose of the satirist:
"I can set a braggart quailing with a quip,
The upstart I can wither with a whim;
He may wear a merry laugh upon his lip,
But his laughter has an echo that is grim!"

Satire in Victorian England
In the 20th century, satire was used by authors such as Aldous Huxley and George Orwell to make serious and even frightening commentaries on the dangers of the sweeping social changes taking place throughout Europe and United States. The film, The Great Dictator (1940) by Charlie Chaplin is a satire on Adolf Hitler. Many social critics of the time, such as Dorothy Parker and H. L. Mencken used satire as their main weapon, and Mencken in particular is noted for having said that "one horse-laugh is worth ten thousand syllogisms" in the persuasion of the public to accept a criticism. Joseph Heller's most famous work, Catch-22, satirizes bureaucracy and the military, and is frequently cited as one of the greatest literary works of the Twentieth Century. Novelist Sinclair Lewis was known for his satirical stories such as Babbitt, Main Street, and It Can't Happen Here. His books often explored and satirized contemporary American values.
The film Dr. Strangelove from 1964 was a popular satire on the Cold War. A more humorous brand of satire enjoyed a renaissance in the UK in the early 1960s with the Satire Boom, led by such luminaries as Peter Cook, John Cleese, Alan Bennett, Jonathan Miller, David Frost, Eleanor Bron and Dudley Moore and the television programme That Was The Week That Was.

Contemporary satire
Because satire often combines anger and humour it can be profoundly disturbing - because it is essentially ironic or sarcastic, it is often misunderstood. In an interview with Wikinews, Sean Mills, President of The Onion, said angry letters about their news parody always carried the same message. "It's whatever affects that person," said Mills. "So it's like, 'I love it when you make a joke about murder or rape, but if you talk about cancer, well my brother has cancer and that's not funny to me.' Or someone else can say, 'Cancer's hilarious, but don't talk about rape because my cousin got raped.' I'm using extreme examples, but whatever it is, if it affects somebody personally they tend to be more sensitive about it."
Common uncomprehending responses to satire include revulsion (accusations of poor taste, or that it's "just not funny" for instance), to the idea that the satirist actually does support the ideas, policies, or people he is attacking. For instance, at the time of its publication, many people misunderstood Swift's purpose in "A Modest Proposal" – assuming it to be a serious recommendation of economically-motivated cannibalism. Again, some critics of Mark Twain see Huckleberry Finn as racist and offensive, missing the point that its author clearly intended it to be satire (racism being in fact only one of a number of Mark Twain's known pet bugbears attacked in Huckleberry Finn).

Misconception of satire
Because satire is stealthy criticism, it frequently escapes censorship. Periodically, however, it runs into serious opposition.
In 1599, the Archbishop of Canterbury John Whitgift and the Bishop of London George Abbot, whose offices had the function of licensing books for publication in England, issued a decree banning verse satire. The decree ordered the burning of certain volumes of satire by John Marston, Thomas Middleton, Joseph Hall, and others; it also required histories and plays to be specially approved by a member of the Queen's Privy Council, and it prohibited the future printing of satire in verse. The motives for the ban are obscure, particularly since some of the books banned had been licensed by the same authorities less than a year earlier. Various scholars have argued that the target was obscenity, libel, or sedition. It seems likely that lingering anxiety about the Martin Marprelate controversy, in which the bishops themselves had employed satirists, played a role; both Thomas Nashe and Gabriel Harvey, two of the key figures in that controversy, suffered a complete ban on all their works. In the event, though, the ban was little enforced, even by the licensing authority itself.
In Italy the media tycoon Silvio Berlusconi attacked RAI Television's satirical series, Raiot, Daniele Luttazzi's Satyricon, Enzo Biagi, Michele Santoro's Sciuscià, even a special Blob series on Berlusconi himself, by arguing that they were vulgar and full of disrespect to the government. He claimed that he would sue the RAI for 21,000,000 Euros if the show went on. RAI stopped the show. Sabina Guzzanti, creator of the show, went to court to proceed with the show and won the case. However, the show never went on air again.
In 2001 the British television network Channel 4 aired a special edition of the spoof current affairs series Brass Eye, which was intended to mock and satirize the fascination of modern journalism with child molesters and pedophiles. The TV network received an enormous number of complaints from members of the public, who were outraged that the show would mock a subject considered by many to be too "serious" to be the subject of humour.
In 2005, the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy caused global protests by offended Muslims and violent attacks with many fatalities in the Near East. It was not the first case of Muslim protests against criticism in the form of satire, but the Western world was surprised by the hostility of the reaction: Any country's flag in which a newspaper chose to publish the parodies was being burnt in a Near East country, then embassies were attacked, killing 139 people in mainly four countries (see article); politicians throughout Europe agreed that satire was an aspect of the freedom of speech, and therefore to be a protected means of dialogue. Iran threatened to start an International Holocaust Cartoon Competition, which was immediately responded to by Jews with a Israeli Anti-Semitic Cartoons Contest. Although not really satirical, the response to Salman Rushdie's Satanic Verses from 1988 was similarly violent; Khomeinei responded with a fatwa, death sentence, for the author, resulting in a 10-year breach of Irano-British diplomatic relations and a continued threat to the author's life.
In 2006 British comedian Sacha Baron Cohen released Borat: Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan a "mockumentary" that satirized everyone, from high society to frat boys. Criticism of the film was heavy, from claims of antisemitism (forgetting the author is Jewish), to the massive boycott of the film by the Kazakh government; the film itself had been a reaction to a longer quarrel between the government and the comedian.

Satire as prophesy

List of satirists and satires

2008-04-16T09:05:00.001-07:00

The Nimrod is a maritime patrol aircraft developed in the United Kingdom. It is an extensive modification of the de Havilland Comet, the world's first jet airliner. It was originally designed by de Havilland's successor, Hawker Siddeley, now part of BAE Systems. A major modification was the fit of a large weapon bay under the fuselage that can carry and drop torpedoes, mines, bombs and other stores. Sonobuoys for tracking submarines are dropped from special launchers in the rear of the fuselage.
It has been the Royal Air Force's primary Maritime Patrol Aircraft (MPA) since the early 1970s, when it replaced the piston-engined Avro Shackleton. The RAF uses two Nimrod variants: the MR2 variant in the Maritime and for the Reconnaissance role the R1 variant in a reconnaissance and electronic intelligence gathering capacity (ELINT).
The Nimrod was the first jet-powered MPA of any significance. Earlier MPA designs used piston or turboprop engines to improve fuel economy and allow for lengthy patrols. Jet engines are most economical at high altitudes and less economical at low altitudes. However, the transit to the operational area can be made at high altitude and in a jet aircraft this is not only economical on fuel but fast as well, compared to earlier piston-powered aircraft. After transit, the Nimrod descends to its patrol area.
On patrol, at high weight all four engines are used, but as fuel is used and weight falls, first one engine is closed down and then a second is closed down when weight is lower. This allows the remaining engines to be run at an efficient RPM rather than running all engines at less efficient RPM. A special "rapid start" system is fitted should the closed-down engines have to be started quickly again. Instead of relying only on airspeed for re-starting an engine, compressor air from a live engine is used in a starter turbine which rapidly accelerates the engine being started. For transit back to base, the closed-down engines are re-started and the aircraft climbed to altitude.
Other MPA designs have been jet powered, including the US Navy's S-3 Viking and future P-8 Poseidon.

Development
Nimrod development began in 1964 as a project to replace the elderly Avro Shackleton. Like many other successful maritime patrol aircraft, it was based on a civil airliner which had reached the end of its market life — in this case, the Comet 4. The first two RAF aircraft were unfinished Comet 4 airliners. The Comet's turbojet engines were replaced with Rolls-Royce Spey turbofans (for better fuel efficiency, particularly at the low altitudes required for maritime patrol). Major fuselage changes were made, including an internal weapons bay, an extended nose for radar, a new tail with electronic warfare (ESM) sensors mounted in a bulky fairing and a MAD (Magnetic anomaly detector) boom. After a first flight in May 1967 the RAF ordered 46 Nimrod MR1s. The first example entered service in October 1969. Five squadrons were eventually equipped with the MR1.

MR1
Three Nimrod aircraft were adapted to the SIGINT role, replacing the Comet C2s and Canberras of No. 51 Squadron in May 1974. The R1 is distinguished from the MR2 by the lack of a MAD boom. Only since the end of the Cold War has the role of the aircraft been officially acknowledged. Officially these were once described as "radar calibration aircraft". The R1s have not suffered the same rate of fatigue and corrosion of the MR2s and will continue in service long after the MR2 is replaced by the MRA4. New Bombardier Sentinel R1 (ASTOR) aircraft due for delivery from mid 2004 may take on some duties performed by the R1. One R1 has been lost in a flying accident since the type's introduction; this occurred in May 1995. To replace this aircraft an MR2 was selected for conversion to R1 standard, and entered service in December 1996.
The Nimrod R1 is based at RAF Waddington in Lincolnshire, England and flown by 51 Sqn.

MR2
In the mid-1970s the Nimrod's duties were expanded to include AEW — again as a replacement for the Lancaster-derived, piston-engined Shackleton which was still in service in that role. The aircraft were modified by BAe at the former Avro plant at Woodford, Greater Manchester to house the GEC Marconi radars in a bulbous nose and tail (see picture). From the start of the first flight trials in 1982 the Nimrod AEW3 project was plagued by cost over-runs and electronic difficulties. Eventually, the MoD realised that the cost of developing the radar system to achieve the required level of performance was prohibitive and the probability of success very uncertain, and in December 1986 the project was cancelled. The RAF eventually received seven Boeing Sentries (AWACS) instead, with proven radar performance, and electronic enhancements to the original USAF systems to address UK-specific requirements. Of the 11 RAF Nimrods that were selected for conversion to AEW3 standard, none returned to the maritime reconnaissance role: all were eventually reduced for spares to support the maritime Nimrod fleet.

AEW3
In 1992 the RAF started a Replacement Maritime Patrol Aircraft (RMPA) procurement programme to replace the Nimrod MR2 aircraft. To meet the requirement BAe proposed rebuilding each Nimrod MR2 with new engines and electronics which it called Nimrod 2000. The RAF considered bids from Lockheed with its P-3 Orion, Loral Corp. with rebuilt ex-US Navy Orions, and Dassault with the Atlantique 3, but in December 1996 awarded the contract to BAe for the Nimrod 2000 as the Nimrod MRA4.
The MRA4 is essentially a new aircraft, with current-generation Rolls-Royce BR710 turbofan engines, a new larger wing, and fully refurbished fuselage. Much larger air intakes are required because the airflow of the BR710 engine is significantly higher than that of the original Spey 250. The rebuilt aircraft borrows heavily from Airbus technology; the wings are designed and manufactured by BAE Systems (a former Airbus partner) and the glass cockpit is derived from that of the Airbus A340.
Development has taken longer than anticipated and the first of 12 MRA4s have not yet entered service. The contract was initially for the supply of 21 rebuilt Nimrods, but due to technical problems the project was halted. Early in the contract BAE discovered that none of the Nimrod airframes supplied by the RAF for refurbishing were to a common standard. This considerably complicated the refurbishment process.
The British House of Commons Defence Committee, in July 2004, reported a forecast cost of £3.5 billion compared to £2.8 billion approved at Main Gate
On July 30th, 2007, the Nimrod MRA4 successfully released the Sting Ray torpedo for the first time. The safe separation trial to demonstrate the ability to deploy this store from the MRA4 bomb bay took place at Aberporth range off the coast of West Wales during the 75th flight of development aircraft PA02. Three MRA4 development aircraft have been built and are undergoing an intensive flight-test programme. PA02 achieved its first flight in December 2004 and is being used to test elements of the mission system and the air vehicle.[1] [2]

MRA4
As of late 2006, 15 Nimrod MR2 and 3 Nimrod R1 remain in operation .

Active Operators
Five Nimrods have been lost in accidents :

Accidents and incidents

Crew: 12
Capacity: 24 POB (Persons On Board)
Length: 38.63 m (126 ft 9 in)
Wingspan: 35.00 m (114 ft 10 in)
Height: 9.45 m (31 ft)
Wing area: 197.05 m² (2,121 sq ft)
Empty weight: 39, 009 kg (86,000lb)
Max takeoff weight: 87,090 kg (192,000 lb)
Powerplant: 4× Rolls-Royce Spey turbofans, 5,515 kg (12,160 lb) each
Maximum speed: 923 km/h (575 mph)
Cruise speed: 787 km/h (490 mph)
Range: 8,340-9,265 km (5,180-5,755 miles)
Service ceiling: 13411 metres (44,000 ft)
R1: none
MR2: AIM-9 Sidewinder, AGM-84 Harpoon, Sting Ray torpedo, depth charges, nuclear depth bombs (until 1992) Performance

2008-04-15T09:56:00.001-07:00

The Curie point (T_c), or Curie temperature, is a term in physics and materials science, named after Pierre Curie (1859-1906), and refers to a characteristic property of a ferromagnetic or piezoelectric material.

Curie temperature in piezoelectric materials
In analogy to ferromagnetic materials, the Curie temperature is also used in piezoelectric materials to describe the temperature above which the material loses its spontaneous polarization and piezoelectric characteristics. In lead zirconate titanate (PZT), the material is tetragonal below T_c and the unit cell contains a displaced central cation and hence a net dipole moment. Above T_c, the material is cubic and the central cation is no longer displaced from the centre of the unit cell. Hence, there is no net dipole moment and no spontaneous polarization.

2008-04-14T08:54:00.001-07:00

In mammals, the adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are the triangle-shaped endocrine glands that sit on top of the kidneys; their name indicates that position (ad-, "near" or "at" + -renes, "kidneys"). They are chiefly responsible for regulating the stress response through the synthesis of corticosteroids and catecholamines, including cortisol and adrenaline.

Arteries and veins

Fight-or-flight response
Stress
Geoffrey Bourne

2008-04-13T09:06:00.001-07:00

The Belfast Bulls are an American football team based in Belfast, Northern Ireland.

2006

Most Valuable Player - Mike Calo
Offensive Player Of The Year - Charlie Campalani
Defensive Player Of The Year - Mark Helferty
Rookie Of The Year - Tim Jebb
Most Improved Player - Andy Black 2006 Player Awards
Note: W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties
* = Current Standing

Season-by-season records

Coaching Staff

Head Coach - Rod Thompson
Offensive Coordinator - Rod Thompson/ Mike Calo
Defensive Coordinator - Chris Millar
Offensive Line- Paul Orr
Defensive Line- Marty Mckeever
Defensive Backs- Mike Scott
Wide Receivers- Mark Helferty Current Staff

2006 Roster
Quarterbacks
Halfbacks
Fullbacks
Receivers
Tight Ends
Offensive Line
Defensive line
Linebackers
Defensive backs

Mike Calo
Colm Davis
Adam McMaster
Garth Tucker
Charlie Campalani
Gary Boyle
Richard Smith
Gary McIlkerney
Ed McDonnell
Phil Annette
Bjorn Blythe
John Ross
Conor Clarke
John Savage
Phil Gunning
Andy Black T
Conor Leckey T
Marty Corrigan T / G
Niall Barr G
Aiden McKeegan G
Gareth Millar C
Marty McKeever DT
Matt McGrath DT
David Orr DT
Rab Newman DE
Willy Hart DE
Daniel Moon DE
Mark Helferty
Craig McClintock
Alva Blanton
Timo Oates
Chris McCaughan
Duncan McCaughan
Chris McWilliams
Tim Jebb CB
Chris Annette CB
Neil McDonnell CB
Barry Blakely CB
Scott Cackett CB
Paul White S
Scott Lennox S
Mike Scott S
Dee Lorimer S
Gary Faulkner S

2008-04-12T09:42:00.001-07:00

Viper may refer to:
In animals:
In comics:
In computer science:
In engineering:
In film and TV:
In games:
In music:
In sports:
In SCUBA diving:
Other:
Viper, any member of the family Viperidae, a group of snakes found throughout Africa, Eurasia and the Americas.
Viper, Agkistrodon piscivorus, a.k.a. the cottonmouth, a venomous snake found in North America.
Viper, Heterodon platirhinos, a harmless colubrid found in North America.
Viperfish, any member of the genus Chauliodus, a deepwater fish.
Viper (Marvel Comics), a supervillain in the Marvel Universe
Viper Comics an independent publisher of comic books and graphic novel trade paperbacks
viper-mode is a vi emulation mode for Emacs
Viper, a nickname for the F-16 Fighting Falcon jet fighter
Viperjet, a civilian F-16 made from a kit
Dornier Flugzeugwerke Viper air-to-air missile
Rolls-Royce Viper a jet engine first produced by Armstrong Siddeley then Bristol and later by Rolls-Royce
Wolseley Viper, a V8 aero engine produced by Wolseley Motor Company
Viper Dart and Viper Falcon, types of sounding rockets based on the Loki (rocket)
Viper (rocket), an anti-tank guided missile
Viper AGM-80A, an air-to-surface missile
VIPIR (radar), a weather radar system
Dodge Viper, a model of automobile produced by Dodge
DB2 Viper, the next generation data server from IBM
MicViper, a reference design from Micronas for a dual-channel ATSC receiver PCI Express card
VIPER (processor), the name of a processor design in the 1980s, standing for Verifiable Integrated Processor for Enhanced Reliability
Viper Security System, a car security system manufactured by Directed Electronics, Inc.
VIPeR is a robot developed by Israeli company Elbit Systems intended for use in warfare.
Viper is one of three Mega-Looper roller coasters manufactured by Arrow Dynamics.
Viper (TV series), an American television series about a morphing Dodge Viper used to fight crime
Colonial Viper, a fictional starfighter class used in the television series Battlestar Galactica
Thompson Viper, a FilmStream camera
Viper (porn star), an adult film star in the 1980s and early 1990s
Dr. Viper, a villain on SWAT Kats.
Steel Viper, a thrill ride at Valleyfair amusement park in Shakopee, Minnesota
Viper Squad, the enemies of Manta Force in the Manta toyline
Viper (G.I. Joe), the general name of several types of soldiers from the Cobra Organization in the G.I. Joe universe toyline
Viper Hyper Animation series, a hentai computer game series by Sogna
VIPER (Hero System), a.k.a. "VIPER: Coils of the Serpent", published by Hero Games for their Hero System
Viper (Six Flags), a roller coaster at various Six Flags amusement parks
Viper 5, an SMG in the PC game S.T.A.L.K.E.R
Viper, a Scourge hero in DotA Allstars (Warcraft III : Frozen Throne map)
Viper Records, an New York based independent record label (since 2000)
The Viper Label, a Liverpool, England based independent record label (since 1999)
Viper (band), a Brazilian heavy metal band
The Vipers, an Irish Punk/Pop band of the late 1970s
Viper, is a colloquial term used in the jazz subculture for a marijuana user
The Vipers, 60's Psychdelic/Pop band
Newcastle Vipers, a British ice hockey club playing in the Elite Ice Hockey League
St. Louis Vipers, a defunct roller hockey team from St. Louis, Missouri
Viper (wrestler), a professional wrestler wrestling for NKW
Nutley Vipers, a baseball team in Nutley, NJ started during 2006-current
VIPER is a new make of mixture rebreather made by Carleton Life Support It is a unit capable of being operated from 0 to 95 meters.
Viper (drink), a heavily caffeinated drink
Viper, a term used in 1920s to describe a Heroin addict, also a heavy marijuana user.
Viper Tactical Gear, a brand of tactical equipment including holsters and pouches. Official Website
VIPER (Video Identification Parade Electronic Recording), a system of identifying suspects by presenting witnesses with, usually moving, images - used increasingly by police in the United Kingdom as an alternative to traditional identity parades.

2008-04-11T10:28:00.001-07:00

Preble County is a county located in the state of Ohio, United States. As of 2000, the population was 42,337. Its county seat is Eaton

Geography

Darke County (north)
Montgomery County (east)
Butler County (south)
Union County, Indiana (southwest)
Wayne County, Indiana (northwest) Rivers and streams
2000 42,337 1990 40,113 1980 38,223 1970 34,719 1960 32,498 1950 27,081 1940 23,329 1930 22,455 1920 23,238 1910 23,834 1900 23,713 1890 23,421 1880 24,533 1870 21,809 1860 21,820 1850 21,736 1840 19,482 1830 16,291 1820 10,237 1810 3,304 As of the census² of 2000, there were 42,337 people, 16,001 households, and 12,144 families residing in the county. The population density was 100 people per square mile (38/km²). There were 17,186 housing units at an average density of 40 per square mile (16/km²). The racial makeup of the county was 98.47% White, 0.32% Black or African American, 0.21% Native American, 0.26% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.11% from other races, and 0.60% from two or more races. 0.43% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 16,001 households out of which 34.20% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 63.50% were married couples living together, 8.50% had a female householder with no husband present, and 24.10% were non-families. 20.60% of all households were made up of individuals and 8.90% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.62 and the average family size was 3.02.
In the county, the population was spread out with 26.00% under the age of 18, 7.70% from 18 to 24, 28.70% from 25 to 44, 24.40% from 45 to 64, and 13.20% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 99.30 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.70 males.
The median income for a household in the county was $42,093, and the median income for a family was $47,547. Males had a median income of $35,313 versus $23,573 for females. The per capita income for the county was $18,444. About 4.50% of families and 6.10% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7.00% of those under age 18 and 6.10% of those age 65 or over.

Demographics
Main article: Ohio county government

Government

Localities

College Corner
Camden
Eaton
Eldorado
Gratis
Lewisburg
New Paris
Verona
West Alexandria
West Elkton
West Manchester Municipalities

Dixon
Gasper
Gratis
Harrison
Israel
Jackson
Jefferson
Lanier
Monroe
Somers
Twin
Washington Townships

Fairhaven Other locality

Andrew L. Harris (1835-1915), Civil War General and Governor of Ohio
William Stephens (1859-1944) Governor of California was born here
Kent Vosler, Olympic Diver (1976, 4th place) Education

College Corner Local School District
Eaton Community Schools

Eaton High School, Eaton (the Eagles)
National Trail Local School District
- National Trail High School, New Paris (the Blazers)
  Preble Shawnee Local School District
  - Preble Shawnee High School, Camden (the Arrows)
    Tri-County North Local School District
    - Tri-County North High School, Lewisburg (the Panthers)
      Twin Valley Community Local School District
      - Twin Valley South High School, West Alexandria (the Panthers)

2008-04-10T08:11:00.001-07:00

Russ High 1887-1907
need input

The Grey Castle 1907-1973
need input

Modern San Diego High 1973-Present
High School Football Mythical National Championship: 1916, 1955
High School Football National Champions: 1921

Athletic History
In May 2006, Newsweek magazine ranked 1,200 public high schools in the U.S. and named San Diego High's International Studies school #22, making it the highest ranking in San Diego County and the second highest in the state of California.

Academic Recognition

Ted Williams who later played baseball for the Boston Red Sox, is rumored to have attended local rival Herbert Hoover High School because he was afraid that he wasn't good enough to make the San Diego High squad
The 1922 San Diego High baseball team was barred from league play by the CIF after its 1921 National Championship Squad played an unsanctioned game against the East's best baseball team of that time Cleveland High. This game drew 11,000 fans which saw San Diego High defeat Cleveland 10-0. During the 1922 season the team played college and independent teams, losing to just Stanford and the Sherman Indians. Beating Cleveland again in front of 13,000 fans.
It is said that when wrecking ball came to demolish the "Grey Castle" to coincide with the building of the current school it took repeated attempts to bring the structure down.
Kate Sessions, considered the "Mother of Balboa Park," taught at San Diego High in 1884 Notable Alumni and Faculty

Balboa Stadium

2008-04-09T09:46:00.001-07:00

The Maritime Football League is a Men's tackle football league in the Maritime Provinces of Canada. The season runs from May until August.

Recent History

VI 2007 Riverview Mustangs 23 Halifax Shockers 0 (Riverview, N.B.)
V 2006 Saint John Wanderers 52 Dartmouth Knights 26 (Saint John, N.B.)
IV 2005 Saint John Wanderers 28 Dartmouth Knights 18 (Halifax, N.S.)
III 2004 Moncton Marshals 30 Halifax Shockers 3 (Moncton, N.B.)
II 2003 Saint John Wanderers 50 Halifax Shockers 12 (Halifax, N.S.)
I 2002 Halifax Shockers 21 Saint John Wanderers 19 (Hampton, N.B.)

2008-04-08T08:53:00.001-07:00

The Reverend Robert Walker Skating on Duddingston Loch, better known by its truncated title The Skating Minister, is an oil painting by Sir Henry Raeburn in the National Gallery of Scotland in Edinburgh. It was practically unknown until about 1949; today, however, it is one of Scotland's best known paintings. It is considered an icon of Scottish culture, painted during one of the most remarkable periods in the country's history, the Scottish Enlightenment.

Attribution controversy

The Skating Minister: The Story Behind the Painting. Written by Lynne Gladstone-Millar, this book tells the story behind this painting. It gives details about the artist, the Reverend, and the setting of the painting. It was published in 2005 by Woodstocker Books.

2008-04-07T09:56:00.001-07:00

History
There are a number of distinct feminist disciplines, wherein experts in fields such as Psychoanalysis or law apply feminist techniques and principles to their own areas of expertise.

Feminist disciplines
Psychoanalytic feminism is based on Freud and his psychoanalytic theories. It maintains that gender is not biological but is based on the psycho-sexual development of the individual. Psychoanalytical feminists believe that gender inequality comes from early childhood experiences, which lead men to believe themselves to be masculine, and women to believe themselves feminine. It is further maintained that gender leads to a social system that is dominated by males, which in turn influences the individual psycho-sexual development. As a solution it was suggested to avoid the gender-specific structuring of the society by male-female coeducation.

Feminist psychoanalysis

Main article: Feminist literary criticism Feminist literary theory

Main article: Feminist film theory Feminist film theory

Main article: Feminist history Feminist history

Main article: Feminist geography Feminist geography

Main article: Feminist philosophy Feminist philosophy

Main article: Feminist sexology Feminist sexology

Main article: Feminist economics Feminist legal theory

2008-04-06T08:06:00.001-07:00

Early life
Crompton's best known books are the William stories, about a mischievous 11-year old schoolboy and his band of friends, known as the Outlaws. The first short story featuring William was Rice Mould published in Home Magazine in 1919, though she did write 'the outlaws' in 1917- it wasn't published until later. In 1922 came the first collection, titled Just William. She wrote 38 other William books throughout her life. The last, William the Lawless was published posthumously in 1970. The William books sold over twelve million copies in the UK alone, and were also adapted for films, stage-plays, BBC radio and television series. Illustrations by Thomas Henry contributed to their success.
Crompton also wrote adult fiction: novels as well as short stories, starting with The Innermost Room (1923). Even William was originally created for grown-up audiences. She once hinted that the success of William obstructed recognition for her other writing. Her first published tale, concerning a little boy named Thomas, a forerunner of William who reacts against authority, was published in The Girls' Own Paper in 1918. Crompton tried several times to reformulate William for other audiences. Jimmy (1949) was aimed at younger children, and Enter - Patricia (1927) at girls. Crompton wrote two more Jimmy books, but no more Patricia, and neither were as successful as William.
Crompton's fiction centres around family and social life, dwelling on the constraints that they place on individuals while also nurturing them. This is best seen in her depiction of children as puzzled onlookers of society's ways. Nevertheless, the children, particularly William and his Outlaws, almost always emerge triumphant.

Work

Mary Cadogan (1993). The Woman Behind William: A Life of Richmal Crompton. Pan Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-60038-X.
Ian Ousby (1994). The Wordsworth Companion to Literature in English. Wordsworth Editions Ltd.. ISBN 1-85326-336-2.
Manchester Authors, Writers and Poets Page at the Papillon Graphics' Virtual Encyclopaedia of Greater Manchester.
Biography at Just William website.
Biography at the Boys' Historical Clothing Web Site. List of published works

Just William, 1922
More William, 1922
William Again, 1923
William The Fourth, 1924
Still William, 1925
William The Conqueror, 1926
William The Outlaw, 1927
William In Trouble, 1927
William The Good, 1928
William, 1929
William The Bad, 1930
William's Happy Days, 1930
William's Crowded Hours, 1931
William The Pirate, 1932
William The Rebel, 1933
William The Gangster, 1934
William The Detective, 1935
Sweet William, 1936
William The Showman, 1937
William The Dictator, 1938
William and Air Raid Precautions, 1939 (also published as William's Bad Resolution, 1956)
William and the Evacuees, 1940 (also published as William and the Film Star, 1956)
William Does His Bit, 1941
William Carries On, 1942
William and the Brains Trust, 1945
Just William's Luck, 1948
William the Bold, 1950
William and the Tramp, 1952
William and the Moon Rocket, 1954
William and the Artist's Model, 1956
William and the Space Animal, 1956
William's Television Show, 1958
William the Explorer, 1960
William's Treasure Trove, 1962
William and the Witch, 1964
William and the Pop Singers, 1965
William and the Masked Ranger, 1966
William the Superman, 1968
William the Lawless, 1970 William-like books

The Innermost Room, 1923
The Hidden Light, 1924
Anne Morrison, 1925
The Wildings, 1925
David Wilding, 1926
The House, 1926 (also published as Dread Dwelling)
Kathleen and I, and, of Course, Veronica, 1926 (short stories)
Millicent Dorrington, 1927
A Monstrous Regiment, 1927 (short stories)
Leadon Hill, 1927
The Thorn Bush, 1928
Roofs Off!, 1928
The Middle Things, 1928 (short stories)
Felicity Stands By, 1928 (short stories)
Sugar and Spice and Other Stories, 1928 (short stories)
Mist and Other Stories, 1928 (short stories)
The Four Graces, 1929
Abbot's End, 1929
Ladies First, 1929 (short stories)
Blue Flames, 1930
Naomi Godstone, 1930
The Silver Birch and Other Stories, 1931 (short stories)
Portrait of a Family, 1932
The Odyssey of Euphemia Tracy, 1932
Marriage of Hermione, 1932
The Holiday, 1933
Chedsy Place, 1934
The Old Man's Birthday, 1934
Quartet, 1935
Caroline, 1936
The First Morning, 1936 (short stories)
There Are Four Seasons, 1937
Journeying Wave, 1938
Merlin Bay, 1939
Seffan Green, 1940
Narcissa, 1941
Mrs. Frensham Describes a Circle, 1942
Weatherly Parade, 1944
Westover, 1946
The Ridleys, 1947
Family Roundabout, 1948
Frost at Morning, 1950
Linden Rise, 1952
The Gypsy's Baby, 1954
Four In Excile, 1954
Matty and the Dearingroydes, 1956
Blind Man's Buff, 1957
Wiseman's Folly, 1959
The Inheritor, 1960

2008-04-05T09:49:00.001-07:00

Manchukuo Thailand (from 1942) The Pacific War was the part of World War II—and preceding conflicts—that took place in the Pacific Ocean, its islands, and in East Asia, between July 7, 1937, and August 14, 1945. The most decisive actions took place after the Empire of Japan attacked various countries, who together came to be known as the Allies (or Allied powers), on or after December 7, 1941, including an attack on United States forces at Pearl Harbor.
Today, most Japanese also use the term "Pacific War" (太平洋戦争 Taiheiyō Sensō), officially adopted by the Imperial General Headquarters in 1941 and banned in 1945, during the occupation of Japan.

Participants
Between 1942 and 1945, there were four main areas of conflict in the Pacific War, ie. the war against Japan: China, the Central Pacific, South East Asia and the South West Pacific.
U.S. sources refer to two theaters within the Pacific War: the Pacific Theater of Operations (PTO) and the China Burma India Theater (CBI). However these were not operational commands. In the PTO, the Allies divided operational control of their forces between two supreme commands, known as Pacific Ocean Areas and Southwest Pacific Area.
In 1945, for brief period just before the Japanese surrender, the Soviet Union and its Mongolian ally engaged Japanese forces in Manchuria and northeast China.

Theatres

Conflict between China and Japan
The roots of the war began in the late 19th century with China in political chaos and Japan rapidly modernising. Over the course of the late 19th century and early 20th century, Japan intervened and finally annexed Korea and expanded its political and economic influence into China, particularly Manchuria. This expansion of power was aided because by the 1910s, China had fragmented into warlordism with only a weak and ineffective central government.
However, the situation of a weak China unable to resist Japanese demands appeared to be changing toward the end of the 1920s. In 1927, Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek and the National Revolutionary Army of the Kuomintang (KMT) led the Northern Expedition. Chiang was able to defeat the warlords in southern and central China, and was in the process of securing the nominal allegiance of the warlords in northern China. Fearing that Zhang Xueliang, the warlord controlling Manchuria, was about to declare his allegiance to Chiang, the Japanese staged the Mukden Incident in 1931 and set up the puppet state of Manchukuo. The nominal Emperor of this puppet state was better known as Henry Pu Yi of the defunct Qing Dynasty.
Japan's imperialist goals in China were to maintain a secure supply of natural resources and to have puppet governments in China that would not act against Japanese interests. Although Japanese actions would not have seemed out of place among European colonial powers in the 19th century, by 1930, notions of Wilsonian self-determination meant that raw military force in support of colonialism was no longer seen as appropriate behavior by the international community.
Hence Japanese actions in Manchuria were roundly criticised and led to Japan's withdrawal from the League of Nations. During the 1930s, China and Japan reached a stalemate with Chiang focusing his efforts at eliminating the Communist Party of China, whom he considered to be a more fundamental danger than the Japanese. The influence of Chinese nationalism on opinion both in the political elite and the general population rendered this strategy increasingly untenable.
Though they had at first cooperated in the Northern Expedition, during the period of 1930–34, the nationalist KMT and the Chinese Communist Party entered into direct conflict.
Meanwhile, in Japan, a policy of assassination by secret societies and the effects of the Great Depression had caused the civilian government to lose control of the military. In addition, the military high command had limited control over the field armies who acted in their own interest, often in contradiction to the overall national interest. Pan-Asianism was also used as a justification for expansion. This is perhaps best summarized by the "Amo Doctrine" of 1934, issued by Eiji Amo, head of information department of the Japanese Foreign Ministry. Known as the "Monroe Doctrine of Asia," it announced Japan's intention for European countries to adopt a "hands off" policy in China, thereby negating the Open Door Policy. It stated that Japan was to be the sole leader in security in East Asia, including the task of defeating communism. Economic reason was also a very important factor leading to the invasion of China. During the Great Depression, Japanese exports to American and European markets were severely curtailed, and Japan turned to completely dominating China politically and economically to provide a stable market. In the period leading up to full-scale war in 1937, Japan's use of force in localised conflicts to threaten China unless the latter reduced its protective tariff and suppressed anti-Japanese activities and boycotts were evidence to this.

Background

Main article: Second Sino-Japanese War Second Sino-Japanese War
In an effort to discourage Japan's war efforts in China, the United States, Britain, and the Dutch government in exile (still in control of the oil-rich Dutch East Indies) stopped selling oil and steel to Japan. It was known as the "ABCD encirclement" (American-British-Chinese-Dutch) designed to deny Japan of the raw materials needed to continue its war in China. Japan saw this as an act of aggression, and without these resources Japan's military machine would grind to a halt. On December 8, 1941, Japanese forces attacked the British crown colony of Hong Kong, the International Settlement in Shanghai, and the Philippines, which was then a United States Commonwealth. Japan also used Vichy French bases in French Indochina to invade Thailand, then using the gained Thai territory to launch an assault against Malaya.
In the belief the U.S. would inevitably come to Britain's aid, simultaneously (December 7 in the Western Hemisphere), Japan launched a carrier-based air attack on Pearl Harbor, hoping to avoid prolonged war and, when faced with this sudden and massive defeat, the United States would agree to a negotiated settlement and allow Japan free reign in China. Admiral Yamamoto stated
This calculated gamble did not pay off; the United States refused to negotiate. Furthermore, American losses were less serious than initially thought; the American carriers were at sea, while vital base facilities like the fuel oil storage tanks and Navy Yard, loss of which could have crippled the Pacific Fleet, were untouched. Moreover, the Submarine Base and intelligence unit (HYPO), which made the largest contributions to Japan's defeat, were also unaffected.
War spreads in the East
Until the attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States had remained out of the Asian and European conflict. The America First Committee, 800,000 members strong, had until that day vehemently opposed any American intervention in the foreign conflict, even as America provided military aid to Britain and Soviet Union through the Lend-Lease program. Opposition to war in the United States vanished after the attack. Four days after Pearl Harbor, on December 11, Nazi Germany declared war on the United States, drawing America into a two-theater war. In 1941, Japan had only a fraction of the manufacturing capacity of the United States and was therefore perceived as a lesser threat than Germany.
British, Indian, and Dutch forces, already drained of personnel and matériel by two years of war with Germany, and heavily committed in the Middle East, North Africa and elsewhere, were unable to provide much more than token resistance to the battle-hardened Japanese. The Allies suffered many disastrous defeats in the first six months of the war. Two major British warships, HMS Repulse and HMS Prince of Wales were sunk by a Japanese air attack off Malaya on December 10, 1941. The government of Thailand surrendered within 24 hours of Japanese aggression and formally allied itself with Japan on December 21, allowing its military bases to be used as a launchpad against Singapore and Malaya. Hong Kong fell on December 25, and U.S. bases on Guam and Wake Island were lost at around the same time.
Following the January 1, 1942 Declaration by the United Nations (not to be confused with the United Nations Organization, organised after World War II), the Allied governments appointed the British General Sir Archibald Wavell as supreme commander of all "American-British-Dutch-Australian" (ABDA) forces in South East Asia. This gave Wavell nominal control of a huge but thinly-spread force covering an area from Burma to the Dutch East Indies and the Philippines. Other areas, including India, Australia and Hawaii remained under separate local commands. On January 15, Wavell moved to Bandung in Java to assume control of ABDA Command (ABDACOM).

United States enters the war
In January, Japan invaded Burma, the Dutch East Indies, New Guinea, the Solomon Islands and they captured Manila, Kuala Lumpur and Rabaul. After being driven out of Malaya, Allied forces in Singapore attempted to resist the Japanese during the battle of Singapore but surrendered to the Japanese on February 15, 1942; about 130,000[2] Indian, Australian and British troops along with Dutch sailors, became prisoners of war. The pace of conquest was rapid: Bali and Timor also fell in February. The rapid collapse of Allied resistance had left the "ABDA area" split in two. Wavell resigned from ABDACOM on February 25, handing control of the ABDA Area to local commanders and returning to the post of Commander-in-Chief, India.
At the battle of the Java Sea in late February and early March, the Japanese Navy inflicted a resounding defeat on the main ABDA naval force, under Admiral Karel Doorman. The Netherlands East Indies campaign subsequently ended with the surrender of Allied forces on Java.
The British, under intense pressure, made a fighting retreat from Rangoon to the Indo-Burmese border. This cut the Burma Road which was the western Allies' supply line to the Chinese Nationalists. Cooperation between the Chinese Nationalists and the Communists had waned from its zenith at the Battle of Wuhan, and the relationship between the two had gone sour as both attempted to expand their area of operations in occupied territories. Most of the Nationalist guerrilla areas were eventually overtaken by the Communists. On the other hand, some Nationalist units were deployed to blockade the Communists and not the Japanese. Furthermore, many of the forces of the Chinese Nationalists were warlords allied to Chiang Kai-Shek, but not directly under his command. "Of the 1,200,000 troops under Chiang's control, only 650,000 were directly controlled by his generals, and another 550,000 controlled by warlords who claimed loyalty to his government; the strongest force was the Szechuan army of 320,000 men. The defeat of this army would do much to end Chiang's power." The Japanese used these divisions to press ahead in their offenses.
Filipino and U.S. forces put up a fierce resistance in the Philippines until May 8, 1942, when more than 80,000 of them surrendered. By this time, General Douglas MacArthur, who had been appointed Supreme Allied Commander South West Pacific, had relocated his headquarters to Australia. The U.S. Navy, under Admiral Chester Nimitz, had responsibility for the rest of the Pacific Ocean.
Meanwhile, Japanese aircraft had all but eliminated Allied air power in South-East Asia and were making attacks on northern Australia, beginning with a disproportionately large and psychologically devastating attack on the city of Darwin on February 19, which killed at least 243 people. A raid by a powerful Imperial Japanese Navy aircraft carrier force into the Indian Ocean resulted in the Battle of Ceylon and sinking of the only British carrier, HMS Hermes, in the theatre as well as 2 cruisers and other ships effectively driving the British fleet out of the Indian ocean and paving the way for Japanese conquest of Burma and a drive towards India. Air attacks on the U.S. mainland were insignificant, comprising of a submarine-based seaplane fire-bombing a forest in Oregon on September 9, 1942 (in 1944, fire balloon attacks were made using bombs carried to the United States from the Japanese mainland by the jetstream).

Japanese offensives, 1941-42
In early 1942, the governments of smaller powers began to push for an inter-governmental Asia-Pacific war council, based in Washington D.C.. A council was established in London, with a subsidiary body in Washington. However the smaller powers continued to push for a U.S.-based body. The Pacific War Council was formed in Washington on April 1, 1942, with a membership consisting of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, his key advisor Harry Hopkins, and representatives from Britain, China, Australia, the Netherlands, New Zealand and Canada. Representatives from India and the Philippines were later added. The council never had any direct operational control, and any decisions it made were referred to the U.S.-British Combined Chiefs of Staff, which was also in Washington.
Allied resistance, at first symbolic, gradually began to stiffen. Australian and Dutch forces led civilians in a prolonged guerilla campaign in Portuguese Timor. The Doolittle Raid did minimal damage but was a huge morale booster for the Allies, especially the United States, and it caused repercussions throughout the Japanese military because they were sworn to protect the Japanese emperor and homeland but did not intercept, down, or damage a single bomber[3].

Allies re-group

Main articles: Battle of the Coral Sea and Battle of Midway Coral Sea and Midway: the turning point

Main articles: New Guinea campaign and Solomon Islands campaign New Guinea and the Solomons

Main article: Guadalcanal campaign Guadalcanal
By late 1942, the Japanese were also retreating along the Kokoda Track in the highlands of New Guinea. Australian and U.S. counteroffensives culminated in the capture of the key Japanese beachhead in eastern New Guinea, the Buna-Gona area, in early 1943.
In June 1943, the Allies launched Operation Cartwheel, which defined their offensive strategy in the South Pacific. The operation was aimed at isolating the major Japanese forward base, at Rabaul, and cutting its supply and communication lines. This prepared the way for Nimitz's island-hopping campaign towards Japan.

Allied advances in New Guinea and the Solomons

Main articles: Second Sino-Japanese War and South-East Asian Theatre of World War II Stalemate in China and South-East Asia
Midway proved to be the last great naval battle for two years. The United States used the two years to turn its vast industrial potential into actual ships, planes, and trained aircrew. At the same time, Japan, lacking an adequate industrial base or technological strategy, a good aircrew training program, and adequate naval resources and doctrine for commerce defense, fell further and further behind. In strategic terms the Allies began a long movement across the Pacific, seizing one island base after another. Not every Japanese stronghold had to be captured; some, like Truk, Rabaul and Formosa were neutralized by air attack and bypassed. The goal was to get close to Japan herself, then launch massive strategic air attacks, improve the submarine blockade, and finally (only if necessary) execute an invasion.
In November 1943, U.S. Marines sustained high casualties when they overwhelmed the 4,500-strong garrison at Tarawa. This helped the Allies to improve the techniques of amphibious landings, learning from their mistakes and implementing changes such as thorough pre-emptive bombings and bombardment, more careful planning regarding tides and landing craft schedules, and better overall coordination.
The U.S. Navy did not seek out the Japanese fleet for a decisive battle, as Mahanian doctrine would suggest (and as Japan hoped); the Allied advance could only be stopped by a Japanese naval attack, which oil shortages (induced by submarine attack) made impossible.

Allied offensives, 1943-44
U.S. submarines (with some aid from the British and Dutch), operating from bases in Australia, Hawaii, and Ceylon, played a major role in defeating Japan. This was the case even though submarines made up a small proportion of the Allied navies—less than two percent in the case of the U.S. Navy.

Submarine warfare

Main article: Battle of Henan-Hunan-Guangxi Japanese counteroffensives in China, 1944

The beginning of the end in the Pacific, 1944

Main articles: Battle of Saipan and Battle of the Philippine Sea Saipan and Philippine Sea:

Main article: Battle of Leyte Gulf Leyte Gulf 1944

Main article: Philippines campaign (1944-45) Philippines, 1944-45

Final stages

Main article: Burma Campaign Liberation of Borneo

Main article: Japan campaign Landings in the Japanese home islands
In August 1945, the U.S. dropped two nuclear weapons on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. More than 200,000 people died as a direct result of these two bombings.
On February 3, 1945, the Soviet Union agreed with Roosevelt to enter the Pacific conflict. It promised to act 90 days after the war ended in Europe and did so exactly on schedule on August 9, by launching Operation August Storm. A battle-hardened, one million-strong Soviet force, transferred from Europe attacked Japanese forces in Manchuria and quickly defeated their Kwantung Army.
In Japan, August 14 is considered to be the day that the Pacific War ended. However, Imperial Japan actually surrendered on August 15, and this day became known in the English-speaking countries as "V-J Day" (Victory in Japan). [5] The formal Instrument of Surrender was signed on September 2, 1945, on the battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay. The surrender was accepted by General Douglas MacArthur as Supreme Allied Commander, with representatives of each Allied nation, from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu and Yoshijiro Umezu.
A separate surrender ceremony between Japan and China was held in Nanking on September 9, 1945.
Following this period, MacArthur went to Tokyo to oversee the postwar development of the country. This period in Japanese history is known as the occupation.

Atomic bomb and the Soviet invasion
Second Sino-Japanese war

7 July 1937 – 9 September 1945 Timeline

1941-12-07 (12-08 Asian Time) Attack on Pearl Harbor
1941-12-08 Japanese Invasion of Thailand
1941-12-08 Battle of Guam (1941)
1941-12-08 United States declares war on Japan
1941-12-08 – 1941-12-25 Battle of Hong Kong
1941-12-08 – 1942-01-31 Battle of Malaya
1941-12-10 Sinking of HMS Prince of Wales and HMS Repulse
1941-12-11 – 1941-12-24 Battle of Wake Island
1941-12-16 – 1942-04-01 Borneo campaign (1942)
1941-12-22 – 1942-05-06 Battle of the Philippines
1942-01-01 – 1945-10-25 Transport of POWs via Hell Ships
1942-01-11 – 1942-01-12 Battle of Tarakan
1942-01-23 Battle of Rabaul (1942)
1942-01-24 Naval Battle of Balikpapan
1942-01-25 Thailand declares war on the Allies
1942-01-30 – 1942-02-03 Battle of Ambon
1942-01-30 – 1942-02-15 Battle of Singapore
1942-02-04 Battle of Makassar Strait
1942-02-14 – 1942-02-15 Battle of Palembang
1942-02-19 Air raids on Darwin, Australia
1942-02-19 – 1942-02-20 Battle of Badung Strait
1942-02-19 – 1943-02-10 Battle of Timor (1942-43)
1942-02-27 – 1942-03-01 Battle of the Java Sea
1942-03-01 Battle of Sunda Strait
1942-03-01 – 1942-03-09 Battle of Java
1942-03-31 Battle of Christmas Island
1942-03-31 – 1942-04-10 Indian Ocean raid
1942-04-09 Bataan Death March begins
1942-04-18 Doolittle Raid
1942-05-03 Japanese invasion of Tulagi
1942-05-04 – 1942-05-08 Battle of the Coral Sea
1942-05-31 – 1942-06-08 Attacks on Sydney Harbour area, Australia
1942-06-04 – 1942-06-06 Battle of Midway Japanese conquest of Southeast Asia and Pacific
Burma Campaign: 1941-12-16 – 1945-08-15
New Guinea campaign
Aleutian Islands campaign
Guadalcanal campaign
Solomon Islands campaign
Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign
Mariana and Palau Islands campaign
Philippines campaign
Ryukyu Islands campaign
Borneo campaign
Japan campaign

1942-01-23 – Battle of Rabaul
1942-03-07 – Operation Mo (Japanese invasion of mainland New Guinea)
1942-05-04 – 1942-05-08 Battle of the Coral Sea
1942-07-01 – 1943-01-31 Kokoda Track Campaign
1942-08-25 – 1942-09-05 Battle of Milne Bay
1942-11-19 – 1942-01-23 Battle of Buna-Gona
1943-01-28 – 1943-01-30 Battle of Wau
1943-03-02 – 1943-03-04 Battle of the Bismarck Sea
1943-06-29 – 1943-09-16 Battle of Lae
1943-06-30 – 1944-03-25 Operation Cartwheel
1943-09-19 – 1944-04-24 Finisterre Range campaign
1943-09-22 – 1944-01-15 Huon Peninsula campaign
1943-11-01 – 1943-11-11 Attack on Rabaul
1943-12-15 – 1945-08-15 New Britain campaign
1944-02-29 – 1944-03-25 Admiralty Islands campaign
1944-04-22 – 1945-08-15 Western New Guinea campaign
1942-06-06 – 1943-08-15 Battle of the Aleutian Islands
1942-06-07 – 1943-08-15 Battle of Kiska
1943-03-26 – Battle of the Komandorski Islands
1942-08-07 – 1943-02-09 Battle of Guadalcanal
1942-08-09 Battle of Savo Island
1942-08-24 – 1942-08-25 Battle of the Eastern Solomons
1942-10-11 – 1942-10-12 Battle of Cape Esperance
1942-10-25 – 1942-10-27 Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands
1942-11-13 – 1942-11-15 Naval Battle of Guadalcanal
1942-11-30 Battle of Tassafaronga
1943-01-29 – 1943-01-30 Battle of Rennell Island
1943-03-06 Battle of Blackett Strait
1943-06-10 – 1943-08-25 Battle of New Georgia
1943-07-06 Battle of Kula Gulf
1943-07-12 – 1943-07-13 Battle of Kolombangara
1943-08-06 – 1943-08-07 Battle of Vella Gulf
1943-08-17 – 1943-08-18 Battle off Horaniu
1943-08-15 – 1943-10-09 Land Battle of Vella Lavella
1943-11-01 – 1945-08-21 Battle of Bougainville
1943-11-01 – 1943-11-02 Battle of Empress Augusta Bay
1943-11-26 Battle of Cape St. George
1943-11-20 – 1943-11-23 Battle of Tarawa
1943-11-20 – 1943-11-24 Battle of Makin
1944-01-31 – 1944-02-07 Battle of Kwajalein
1944-02-16 – 1944-02-17 Attack on Truk
1944-02-16 – 1944-02-23 Battle of Eniwetok
1944-06-15 – 1944-07-09 Battle of Saipan
1944-06-19 – 1944-06-20 Battle of the Philippine Sea
1944-07-21 – 1944-08-10 Battle of Guam
1944-07-24 – 1944-08-01 Battle of Tinian
1944-09-15 – 1944-11-25 Battle of Peleliu
1944-09-17 – 1944-09-30 Battle of Angaur
1944-10-20 – 1944-12-10 Battle of Leyte
1944-10-24 – 1944-10-25 Battle of Leyte Gulf
1944-11-11 – 1944-12-21 Battle of Ormoc Bay
1944-12-15 – 1945-07-04 Battle of Luzon
1945-01-09 Invasion of Lingayen Gulf
1945-02-27 – 1945-07-04 Southern Philippines campaign
1945-01-24 – 1945-01-29 Operation Meridian
1945-02-16 – 1945-03-26 Battle of Iwo Jima
1945-04-01 – 1945-06-21 Battle of Okinawa
1945-04-07 Operation Ten-Go
1945-05-01 – 1945-05-25 Battle of Tarakan
1945-05-15 – 1945-05-16 Battle of the Malacca Strait
1945-06-10 – 1945-06-15 Battle of Brunei
1945-06-10 – 1945-06-22 Battle of Labuan
1945-06-17 – 1945-08-15 Battle of North Borneo
1945-07-07 – 1945-07-21 Battle of Balikpapan
1945-07-22 Battle of Tokyo Bay
1945-08-06 – 1945-08-09 Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Notes

Eric M. Bergerud, Fire in the Sky: The Air War in the South Pacific (2000)
Clay Blair, Jr. Silent Victory. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1975 (submarine war).
Thomas Buell, Master of Seapower: A Biography of Admiral Ernest J. King Naval Institute Press, 1976.
Thomas Buell, The Quiet Warrior: A Biography of Admiral Raymond Spruance. 1974.
John Costello, The Pacific War. 1982.
Wesley Craven, and James Cate, eds. The Army Air Forces in World War II. Vol. 1, Plans and Early Operations, January 1939 to August 1942. University of Chicago Press, 1958. Official history; Vol. 4, The Pacific: Guadalcanal to Saipan, August 1942 to July 1944. 1950; Vol. 5, The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki. 1953.
Dunnigan, James F., and Albert A. Nofi. The Pacific War Encyclopedia. Facts on File, 1998. 2 vols. 772p.
Harry A. Gailey.' 'The War in the Pacific: From Pearl Harbor to Tokyo Bay (1995)
Saburo Hayashi and Alvin Coox. Kogun: The Japanese Army in the Pacific War. Quantico, Va.: Marine Corps Assoc., 1959.
James C. Hsiung and Steven I. Levine, eds. China's Bitter Victory: The War with Japan, 1937–1945 M. E. Sharpe, 1992
Ch'i Hsi-sheng, Nationalist China at War: Military Defeats and Political Collapse, 1937–1945 University of Michigan Press, 1982
Rikihei Inoguchi, Tadashi Nakajima, and Robert Pineau. The Divine Wind. Ballantine, 1958. Kamikaze.
S. Woodburn Kirby, The War Against Japan. 4 vols. London: H.M.S.O., 1957-1965. Official Royal Navy history.
William M. Leary, We Shall Return: MacArthur's Commanders and the Defeat of Japan. University Press of Kentucky, 1988.
Gavin Long, Australia in the War of 1939–45, Army. Vol. 7, The Final Campaigns. Canberra: Australian War Memorial, 1963.
Dudley McCarthy, Australia in the War of 1939–45, Army. Vol. 5, South-West Pacific Area—First Year: Kokoda to Wau. Canberra: Australian War Memorial, 1959.
D. Clayton James, The Years of MacArthur. Vol. 2. Houghton Mifflin, 1972.
Maurice Matloff and Edwin M. Snell Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare 1941–1942, Center of Military History United States Army Washington, D. C., 1990
Samuel Eliot Morison, History of United States Naval Operations in World War II. Vol. 3, The Rising Sun in the Pacific. Boston: Little, Brown, 1961; Vol. 4, Coral Sea, Midway and Submarine Actions. 1949; Vol. 5, The Struggle for Guadalcanal. 1949; Vol. 6, Breaking the Bismarcks Barrier. 1950; Vol. 7, Aleutians, Gilberts, and Marshalls. 1951; Vol. 8, New Guinea and the Marianas. 1962; Vol. 12, Leyte. 1958; vol. 13, The Liberation of the Philippines: Luzon, Mindanao, the Visayas. 1959; Vol. 14, Victory in the Pacific. 1961.
Masatake Okumiya, and Mitso Fuchida. Midway: The Battle That Doomed Japan. Naval Institute Press, 1955.
E. B. Potter, and Chester W. Nimitz. Triumph in the Pacific. Prentice Hall, 1963. Naval battles
E. B. Potter, Bull Halsey Naval Institute Press, 1985.
E. B. Potter, Nimitz. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1976.
John D. Potter, Yamamoto 1967.
Gordon W. Prange, Donald Goldstein, and Katherine Dillon. At Dawn We Slept. Penguin, 1982. Pearl Harbor
______, et al. Miracle at Midway. Penguin, 1982.
______, et al. Pearl Harbor: The Verdict of History.
Seki, Eiji (2007). Sinking of the SS Automedon And the Role of the Japanese Navy: A New Interpretation. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 1905246285.
Henry Shaw, and Douglas Kane. History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II. Vol. 2, Isolation of Rabaul. Washington, D.C.: Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps, 1963
Henry Shaw, Bernard Nalty, and Edwin Turnbladh. History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II. Vol. 3, Central Pacific Drive. Washington, D.C.: Office of the Chief of Military History, 1953.
E.B. Sledge, With the Old Breed: At Peleliu and Okinawa. Presidio, 1981. Memoir.
J. Douglas Smith, and Richard Jensen. World War II on the Web: A Guide to the Very Best Sites. (2002)
Ronald Spector, Eagle Against the Sun: The American War with Japan Free Press, 1985.
John Toland, The Rising Sun. 2 vols. Random House, 1970. Japan's war.
H. P. Willmott. Empires in the Balance. Annapolis: United States Naval Institute Press, 1982.
________. The Barrier and the Javelin. Annapolis: United States Naval Institute Press, 1983.
Gerhard L. Weinberg, A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-44317-2. (2005).
William Y'Blood, Red Sun Setting: The Battle of the Philippine Sea. Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1980.

2008-04-04T10:42:00.001-07:00

In heraldry, the torse is a twisted roll of fabric wound around the top of the helm and crest to hold the mantle in place.
Like the mantle, the protective cloth covering worn over a knight's helmet, the torse is represented in two colours, generally the same pair of colours used on the mantle. The torse was made up of a pair of ribbons twisted together, tinctured of the principal metal and colors of the shield, the livery colours. (See tincture for more on these "tinctures".) The torse is also often referred to as the wreath.
The torse is sometimes held to represent the token which the crusader's lady-love gave him when he left for the wars, a sort of hankie which he twisted round the top of his helmet, masking the join where the crest was fixed to it.
The torse is blazoned as part of the crest, "On a wreath of the colours x and y…", for example the torse in the Coat of Arms of Canada is blazoned "On a wreath of the colours Argent and Gules, a lion passant guardant Or".
The torse is also often used as a decoration on a heraldic animal, either as a form of crown, or as a wreath around the neck.

2008-04-03T09:56:00.001-07:00

The Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art in Edinburgh, holds the national collection of modern art. When opened in 1960, the collection was held in Inverleith House, at the Royal Botanic Gardens. In 1980 it moved to its current home: a Neo Classical building in the west of Edinburgh, near the Water of Leith, built in 1825-1828 by William Burn for John Watson's Hospital, a school now incorporated in George Watson's College.
The Sculpture garden to the front of the building contains work by Henry Moore, Rachel Whiteread, Tony Cragg and Barbara Hepworth. In 2002 the front lawn was converted into the giant "Landform" sculpture by Charles Jencks, in collaboration with Terry Farrell. The sculpture is said to be inspired by chaos theory or Seurat's La Grand Jatte. In 2004 the gallery won the £100,000 Gulbenkian Prize for the Landform.
The collection includes work by Picasso, Braque, Mondrian, Ben Nicholson, Matisse, Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein, The Scottish Colourists, Peter Howson, Levannah Harris, Francis Bacon, Lucien Freud, Boyle Family The Scottish Colourists and Douglas Gordon. Due to space constraints, the work that is displayed is often rotated. The gallery also holds temporary exhibitions. Surrealist and Dada art, as well as work by Eduardo Paolozzi are kept at the adjacent Dean Gallery.
A selection of works from the gallery is available to view online.

2008-04-02T09:58:00.001-07:00

Packet writing is an optical disc recording technology used to allow writeable CD and DVD media to be used in a similar manner to a floppy disk. Packet writing allows the user to access the contents of a CD-R or CD-RW disc directly through a mounted filesystem (Unix, Linux, Mac OS X) or drive letter (Windows). Without packet writing software, one would have to use regular CD mastering recording software to burn a whole disc.
Packet writing can be used both with once-writeable media such as CD-R, DVD+R and DVD-R, and also with rewriteable media such as CD-RW, DVD+RW and DVD-RW. Once-writeable media cannot however recover space once used; A deleted file does not free space on the disk, and a modified or overwritten file occupies additional space even if the file size has not increased. When the free space on a once-writeable disk is exhausted, no further update to the disk is possible. Rewriteable (RW) media can have all the files deleted on a formatted disc, or information can be overwritten. The downside is CD-RW will fade to the point it isn't readable as the re-crystalized alloy de-crystalizes. Formatted CD-RWs seem to fade out faster than unformatted CD-RWs.
Several competing and incompatible packet writing disk formats have been developed, notably those of Roxio Drag-To-Disc (formerly DirectCD), Nero AG InCD, and Sonic Solutions Drive Letter Access. Proposed standards include UDF 1.5 and Mount Rainier.

Optical disc
Optical disc image
Recorder hardware
Authoring software
Recording technologies

Recording modes
Packet writing
Laserdisc
Compact disc/CD-ROM: CD-R, CD-RW
MiniDisc
DVD: DVD-R, DVD-D, DVD-R DL, DVD+R, DVD+R DL, DVD-RW, DVD+RW, DVD-RW DL, DVD+RW DL, DVD-RAM
Blu-ray Disc: BD-R, BD-RE
HD DVD: HD DVD-R: HD DVD-RAM
UDO
UMD
Holographic data storage
3D optical data storage
History of optical storage media
Rainbow Books
File systems
- ISO 9660
  - Joliet
    Rock Ridge
    - Amiga Rock Ridge extensions
      El Torito
      Apple ISO9660 Extensions
      Universal Disk Format
      - Mount Rainier

2008-04-01T08:56:00.001-07:00

For the Star Trek particle, see Omega particle (Star Trek).

2008-03-29T09:55:00.001-07:00

This article is about a scientific institution. For the center of higher learning which is not a part of Carnegie Mellon University, refer to Carnegie Institute of Technology. For the Carnegie Institute which operates the Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh, see that article.
The Carnegie Institution of Washington (CIW) is a foundation established to support scientific research. Today the CIW directs its afforts in six main areas: plant molecular biology at the Department of Plant Biology (Stanford, CA), developmental biology at the Department of Embryology (Baltimore, MD), global ecology at the Department of Global Ecology (Stanford, CA), Earth science at the Geophysical Laboratory (Washington, DC); planetary sciences at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism (Washington, DC), and astronomy (at the Observatories of the Carnegie Institution of Washington (OCIW; Pasadena, CA and Las Campanas, Chile)).

History
The Institution's grant to George Hale was used for the construction of a telescope built around a large mirror blank that he had received as a gift from his father. The OCIW funded the completion of the 60-inch Hale Telescope on Mount Wilson in the San Gabriel Mountains above Pasadena, California. Immediately work began on designing the even larger Hooker Telescope (100-inch), completed in 1917. Two solar telescopes were also constructed with Carnegie support and together they form the Mount Wilson Observatory, still chiefly supported by the Carnegie Institution after 100 years. The OCIW went on to help Hale design and build the 200-inch telescope of the Palomar Observatory (although construction was mostly paid for by a Rockefeller grant).
The OCIW's chief observatory is now the Las Campanas Observatory in Chile, where two identical 6.5 meter Magellan telescopes operate. OCIW is the lead institution in the consortium building the Giant Magellan Telescope, which will be made up seven mirrors each 8.4 meters in diameter for a total telescope diameter of 25.4 metres (83 feet). The telescope is expected to have over four times the light-gathering ability of existing instruments.

Observatories of the Carnegie Institution
In 1920 the Eugenics Record Office in Cold Spring Harbor, New York was merged with the Station for Experimental Evolution to become the CIW's Department of Genetics. The CIW funded that laboratory until 1939. It closed in 1944 and its records were retained in a university library. The CIW continues its support for genetic research, and among its notable grantees in that field are Nobel laureates Barbara McClintock, Alfred Hershey and Andrew Fire.

2008-03-28T09:02:00.000-07:00

Frederick William Seward (July 8, 1830 – April 25, 1915) was the Assistant Secretary of State during the American Civil War, serving in Abraham Lincoln's administration as well as under Andrew Johnson during Reconstruction and for over two years under Rutherford B. Hayes.

Civil War

Main articles: Abraham Lincoln assassination#William H. Seward and Abraham Lincoln assassination: William H. Seward

2008-03-27T09:05:00.001-07:00

The McCloskey critique of post-1940s neo-classical economics is about the alleged elite arguments which are conducted through abstract mathematical models, accused of revealing little about the real economy.

Criticism to McCloskey's critique

Paul Feyerabend's 'postmodernist' critique of fixed methodology in the natural sciences is often compared with McCloskey's
Economic history

2008-03-26T10:28:00.001-07:00

North Carolina ratified the Constitution on November 21, 1789.

Class 3 seat

2008-03-25T09:28:00.001-07:00

Beryllium (IPA: /bəˈrɪliəm/) is the chemical element that has the symbol Be and atomic number 4. A bivalent element, elemental beryllium is a steel grey, strong, light-weight yet brittle, alkaline earth metal. It is primarily used as a hardening agent in alloys (most notably beryllium copper).

Notable characteristics
The name beryllium comes from the Greek βερυλλος, beryllos, beryl, from Prakrit veruliya, from Pāli veuriya; possibly from or simply akin to a Dravidian source represented by Tamil veiruor, viar, "to whiten, become pale.") . This element was discovered by Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin in 1798 as the oxide in beryl and in emeralds. Friedrich Wöhler and A. A. Bussy independently isolated the metal in 1828 by reacting potassium and beryllium chloride.

Occurrence on Earth

Applications

Thin sheets of beryllium foil are used with X-ray detection diagnostics to filter out visible light and allow only X-rays to be detected.
Sheets of beryllium ranging from 3mm (0.125") thick down to 25µm (0.001") thick are used as the output window in x-ray tubes, allowing x-rays to leave the tube while keeping a vacuum on the inside of the tube.
Beryllium metal is, due to its stiffness, light weight, and dimensional stability over a wide temperature range, used in the defense and aerospace industries as light-weight structural materials in high-speed aircraft, missiles, space vehicles and communication satellites. For example, many high-quality liquid fueled rockets use nozzles of pure Be, an example being the Saturn V.
Beryllium is used as an alloying agent in the production of beryllium copper, containing up to 2.5% beryllium. Beryllium-copper alloys are used in a wide variety of applications because of their combination of high electrical and thermal conductivity, high strength and hardness, nonmagnetic properties, along with good corrosion and fatigue resistance. These applications include the making of spot-welding electrodes, springs, non-sparking tools and electrical contacts.
In the field of X-ray lithography beryllium is used for the reproduction of microscopic integrated circuits.
In the telecommunications industry, tools made of Beryllium are used to tune the highly magnetic klystrons used for high power microwave applications.
Because it has a low thermal neutron absorption cross section, the nuclear power industry uses it in nuclear reactors as a neutron reflector and moderator.
Beryllium is used in nuclear weapons for similar reasons. For example, the critical mass of a plutonium sphere is significantly reduced if the plutonium is surrounded by a beryllium shell.
Beryllium copper is used in electrical spring contacts.
Beryllium is sometimes used in neutron sources, in which the beryllium is mixed with an alpha emitter such as
Beryllium has been used in tweeter and mid-range audio loudspeaker construction as an alternative to titanium and aluminium, largely due to its lower density and greater rigidity.
Because of its low atomic number beryllium is almost transparent to energetic electrically charged particles. Therefore it is used to build the beam pipe around the collision region in collider particle physics experiments. Notably all four main detector experiments at the Large Hadron Collider accelerator (ALICE, ATLAS, CMS, LHCb) use a beryllium beam-pipe.
Can be found in jewelry, as in a tie tack or clip. As metal and alloys
See also Beryllium compounds.

Beryllium is an effective p-type dopant in III-V compound semiconductors. It is widely used in materials such as GaAs, AlGaAs, InGaAs, and InAlAs grown by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE).
Beryllium oxide is useful for many applications that require an excellent heat conductor, with high strength and hardness, with a very high melting point, and that acts as an electrical insulator.
Beryllium compounds were once used in fluorescent lighting tubes, but this use was discontinued because of berylliosis in the workers manufacturing the tubes (see below). As compounds
Of beryllium's isotopes, only Be are known to exhibit a nuclear halo.

Isotopes

Health effects
According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), beryllium and beryllium compounds are Category 1 carcinogens; they are carcinogenic to both animals and humans. Chronic berylliosis is a pulmonary and systemic granulomatous disease caused by exposure to beryllium. Acute beryllium disease in the form of chemical pneumonitis was first reported in Europe in 1933 and in the United States in 1943. Cases of chronic berylliosis were first described in 1946 among workers in plants manufacturing fluorescent lamps in Massachusetts. Chronic berylliosis resembles sarcoidosis in many respects, and the differential diagnosis is often difficult.
Although the use of beryllium compounds in fluorescent lighting tubes was discontinued in 1949, potential for exposure to beryllium exists in the nuclear and aerospace industries and in the refining of beryllium metal and melting of beryllium-containing alloys, the manufacturing of electronic devices, and the handling of other beryllium-containing material.
Early researchers tasted beryllium and its various compounds for sweetness in order to verify its presence. Modern diagnostic equipment no longer necessitates this highly risky procedure and no attempt should be made to ingest this substance. Beryllium and its compounds should be handled with great care and special precautions must be taken when carrying out any activity which could result in the release of beryllium dust (lung cancer is a possible result of prolonged exposure to beryllium laden dust).
This substance can be handled safely if certain procedures are followed. No attempt should be made to work with beryllium before familiarization with correct handling procedures.
A successful test for beryllium on different surface areas has been recently developed. The procedure uses fluorescence when beryllium is bound to sulfonated hydroxybenzoquinoline to detect up to 10 times lower than the recommended limit for beryllium concentration in the work place. Fluorescence increases with increasing beryllium concentration. The new procedure has been successfully tested on a variety of surfaces.

Precautions
Beryllium can be harmful if inhaled and the effects depend on period of exposure. If beryllium air levels are high enough (greater than 100 µg/m³), an acute condition can result, called acute beryllium disease, which resembles pneumonia. Occupational and community air standards are effective in preventing most acute lung damage. Long term exposure to beryllium can increase the risk of developing lung cancer. The more common and serious health hazard from beryllium today is chronic beryllium disease (CBD), discussed below. It continues to occur in industries as diverse as metal recycling, dental laboratories, alloy manufacturing, nuclear weapons production, defense industries, and metal machine shops that work with alloys containing small amounts of beryllium.

Inhalation
Some people (1-15%) become sensitive to beryllium. These individuals may develop an inflammatory reaction that principally targets the respiratory system and skin. This condition is called chronic beryllium disease (CBD), and can occur within a few months or many years after exposure to higher than normal levels of beryllium (greater than 0.02 µg/m³). This disease causes fatigue, weakness, night sweats and can cause difficulty in breathing and a persistent dry cough. It can result in anorexia, weight loss, and may also lead to right-side heart enlargement and heart disease in advanced cases. Some people who are sensitized to beryllium may not have any symptoms. The disease is treatable, but not curable with traditional drugs and medicine. CBD occurs when the body's immune system recognizes beryllium particles as foreign material and mounts an immune system attack against the particles. Because these particles are typically inhaled into the lungs, the lungs become the major site where the immune system responds, they become inflamed and fill with large numbers of white blood cells that accumulate wherever beryllium particles are found. These cells form balls around the beryllium particles called "granulomas." When enough of these develop, they interfere with the normal function of the organ. Over time, the lungs become stiff and lose their ability to help transfer oxygen from the air into the bloodstream. Patients with CBD develop difficulty inhaling and exhaling sufficient amounts of air, and the amount of oxygen in their bloodstreams falls. Treatment of such patients includes use of oxygen and medicines that try to suppress the immune system's over-reaction to beryllium. A class of immunosuppressive medicines called glucocorticoids (example: prednisone) is most commonly used as treatment. The general population is unlikely to develop acute or chronic beryllium disease because ambient air levels of beryllium are normally very low (0.00003-0.0002 µg/m³).

Chronic beryllium disease (CBD)
Swallowing beryllium has not been reported to cause effects in humans because very little beryllium is absorbed from the stomach and intestines. Ulcers have been seen in dogs ingesting beryllium in the diet.

Ingestion
Beryllium can cause contact dermatitis. Beryllium contact with skin that has been scraped or cut may cause rashes, ulcers, or bumps under the skin called granulomas.

Dermatological effects
There are no studies on the health effects of children exposed to beryllium, although individual cases of CBD have been reported in children of beryllium workers from the 1940s. It is likely that the health effects seen in children exposed to beryllium will be similar to the effects seen in adults. It is unknown whether children differ from adults in their susceptibility to beryllium. It is unclear whether beryllium is teratogenic.

Effects on children
Beryllium can be measured in the urine and blood. The amount of beryllium in blood or urine may not indicate time or quantity of exposure. Beryllium levels can also be measured in lung and skin samples. While such measurements may help establish that exposure has occurred, other tests are used to determine if that exposure has resulted in health effects. A blood test, the blood beryllium lymphocyte proliferation test (BeLPT), identifies beryllium sensitization and has predictive value for CBD. The BeLPT has become the standard test for detecting beryllium sensitization and CBD in individuals who are suspected of having CBD and to help distinguish it from similar conditions such as sarcoidosis. It is also the main test used in industry health programs to monitor whether disease is occurring among current and former workers who have been exposed to beryllium on the job. The test can detect disease that is at an early stage, or can detect disease at more advanced stages of illness as well. The BeLPT can also be performed using cells obtained from a person's lung by a procedure called "bronchoscopy."

Industrial release and occupational exposure limits

Category:Beryllium compounds
Beryllium's entries at fictional applications of real materials
Sucker Bait, a story by Isaac Asimov in which the health hazard of beryllium dust is an important plot point

2008-03-24T09:05:00.001-07:00

Nomenclature
Tamazight is a member of the Afro-Asiatic language family (formerly called Hamito-Semitic). Traditional genealogists of tribes claiming Arab origin often claimed that Berbers were Arabs that immigrated from Yemen. Some of them considered Tamazight to derive from Arabic. This view, however, is rejected by linguists, who regard Semitic and Berber as two separate branches of Afro-Asiatic.

Origin
The exact population of Berber speakers is hard to ascertain, since most North African countries do not record language data in their censuses. The Ethnologue provides a useful academic starting point; however, its bibliographic references are inadequate, and it rates its own accuracy at only B-C for the area. Early colonial censuses may provide better documented figures for some countries; however, these are also very much out of date.
"Few census figures are available; all countries (Algeria and Morocco included) do not count Berber languages. The 1972 Niger census reported Tuareg, with other languages, at 127,000 speakers. Population shifts in location and number, effects of urbanization and education in other languages, etc., make estimates difficult. In 1952 A. Basset (LLB.4) estimated the number of Berberophones at 5,500,000. Between 1968 and 1978 estimates ranged from eight to thirteen million (as reported by Galand, LELB 56, pp. 107, 123-25); Voegelin and Voegelin (1977, p. 297) call eight million a conservative estimate. In 1980, S. Chaker estimated that the Berberophone populations of Kabylie and the three Moroccan groups numbered more than one million each; and that in Algeria, 3,650,000, or one out of five Algerians, speak a Berber language (Chaker 1984, pp. 8-9)."[2]
This nomenclature is common in linguistic publications, but is significantly complicated by local usage: thus Tachelhit is sub-divided into Tachelhit of the Dra valley, Tasusit (the language of the Souss) and several other (mountain)-dialects. Moreover, linguistic boundaries are blurred, such that certain dialects cannot accurately be described as either Central Morocco Tamazight (spoken in the Central and eastern Atlas area) or Tachelhit.
Mohammad Chafik claims 80% of Moroccans are Berbers.[3] It is not clear, however, whether he means "speakers of Berber languages" or "people of Berber descent".

Tamasheq: 250,000
Tamajaq: 190,000

Tawallamat Tamajaq: 450,000
Tayart Tamajeq: 250,000
Tahaggart Tamahaq: 20,000
Thus, judging by the not necessarily reliable Ethnologue, the total number of speakers of Berber languages in the Maghreb proper appears to lie anywhere between 14 and 20 million, depending on which estimate is accepted; if we take Basset's estimate, it could be as high as 25 million. The vast majority are concentrated in Morocco and Algeria. The Tuareg of the Sahel add another million or so.

Morocco: In 1952, André Basset ("La langue berbère", Handbook of African Languages, Part I, Oxford) estimated that a "small majority" of Morocco's population spoke Berber. The 1960 census estimated that 34% of Moroccans spoke Berber, including bi-, tri-, and quadrilinguals. In 2000, Karl Prasse cited "more than half" in an interview conducted by Brahim Karada at Tawalt.com. According to the Ethnologue (by deduction from its Moroccan Arabic figures), the Berber-speaking population is estimated at 35% (1991 and 1995). However, the figures it gives for individual languages only add up to 7.5 million, or about 28%. Most of these are accounted for by three dialects:

Tarifit: 1.5 million (1991)
Tachelhit: 3 million (1998)
Central Morocco Tamazight: 3 million (1998)
Algeria: In 1906, the total population speaking Berber languages in Algeria (excluding the thinly populated Sahara) was estimated at 1,305,730 out of 4,447,149, ie 29%. (Doutté & Gautier, Enquête sur la dispersion de la langue berbère en Algérie, faite par l'ordre de M. le Gouverneur Général, Alger 1913.) The 1911 census, however, found 1,084,702 speakers out of 4,740,526, ie 23%; Doutté & Gautier suggest that this was the result of a serious undercounting of Chaouia in areas of widespread bilingualism. A trend was noted for Berber groups surrounded by Arabic (as in Blida) to adopt Arabic, while Arabic speakers surrounded by Berber (as in Sikh ou Meddour near Tizi-Ouzou) tended to adopt Berber. In 1952, André Basset estimated that about a third of Algeria's population spoke Berber. The Algerian census of 1966 found 2,297,997 out of 12,096,347 Algerians, or 19%, to speak "Berber." In 1980, Salem Chaker estimated that "in Algeria, 3,650,000, or one out of five Algerians, speak a Berber language" (Chaker 1984, pp. 8-9). According to the Ethnologue, more recent estimates include (by deduction from its Algerian Arabic figures) 17% (1991) and 29% (Hunter 1996). The actual figures it gives for Berber languages, however, only add up to about 4 million, under 15%. Most of these are accounted for by two dialects:
- Kabyle: 2.5 million (1995), or 8% of the population - or "up to" 6 million (1998), which would be more like 20%.
  Chaouia: 1.4 million (1993), thus 5% of the population.
  Tunisia: Basset (1952) estimated about 1%, as did Penchoen (1968). According to the Ethnologue, there are only 26,000 speakers (1998) of a Berber language it calls "Djerbi" in Tunisia, all in the south around Djerba and Matmata. The more northerly enclave of Sened apparently no longer speaks Berber. This would make 0.3% of the population.
  Libya: According to the Ethnologue (by deduction from its combined Libyan Arabic and Egyptian Arabic figures) the non-Arabic-speaking population, most of which would be Berber, is estimated at 4% (1991, 1996). However, the individual language figures it gives add up to 162,000, ie about 3%. This is mostly accounted for by languages:
  - Nafusi in Zuwarah and Jabal Nafusa: 141,000 (1998).
    Tahaggart Tamahaq of Ghat: 17,000 (Johnstone 1993).
    Egypt: The oasis of Siwa near the Libyan border speaks a Berber language; according to the Ethnologue, there are 5,000 speakers there (1995). Its population in 1907 was 3884 (according to the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica); the claimed lack of increase seems surprising.
    Mauritania: According to the Ethnologue, only 200-300 speakers of Zenaga remain (1998). It also mentions Tamasheq, but does not provide a population figure for it. Most non-Arabic speakers in Mauritania speak Niger-Congo languages.
    Mali: The Ethnologue counts 440,000 Tuareg (1991) speaking:
    Niger: The Ethnologue counts 720,000 Tuareg (1998) speaking:
    Burkina Faso: The Ethnologue counts 20,000 - 30,000 Tuareg (SIL 1991), speaking Kidal Tamasheq.
    Nigeria: The Ethnologue notes the presence of "few" Tuareg, speaking Tawallamat Tamajaq.
    France: The Ethnologue lists 537,000 speakers for Kabyle, 150,000 for Central Morocco Tamazight, and no figures for Tachelhit and Tarifit. For the rest of Europe, it has no figures.
    Ceuta and Melilla: A majority of Melilla's 80,000 inhabitants, and a minority of Ceuta's inhabitants, speak Berber[4].
    Israel: A few thousand elderly Moroccan-born Israelis use Judeo-Berber dialects. Population
    Nouns in Berber languages / Tamazight vary in gender (masculine vs feminine), in number (singular vs plural) and in state (free state vs construct state). In the case of the masculine, nouns generally begin with one of the three vowels of Berber, a, u or i:
    afus "hand"
    argaz "man"
    udm "face"
    ul "heart"
    ixf "head"
    ils "tongue"
    While the masculine is unmarked, the feminine is marked with the discontinuous morpheme t…t. Feminine plural takes a prefix t… :
    
    afus → tafust
    udm → tudmt
    ixf → tixft
    ifassn → tifassin
    Berber languages / Tamazight have two types of number: singular and plural, of which only the latter is marked. Plural has three forms according to the type of nouns. The first, "regular" type is known as the "external plural"; it consists in changing the initial vowel of the noun, and adding a suffix -n:
    
    afus → ifasn "hands"
    argaz → irgazn "men"
    ixf → ixfawn "heads"
    ul → ulawn "hearts"
    The second form of the plural is known as the "broken plural". It involves only a change in the vowels of the word:
    
    adrar → idurar "mountain"
    agadir → igudar "wall"
    abaghus → ibughas "monkey"
    The third type of plural is a mixed form: it combines a change of vowels with the suffix -n:
    
    izi → izan "fly"
    azur → izuran "root"
    izikr → izakarn "rope"
    Berber languages also have two types of states or cases of the noun, organized ergatively: one is unmarked, while the other serves for the subject of a transitive verb and the object of a preposition, among other contexts. The former is often called free state, the latter construct state. The construct state of the noun derives from the free state through one of the following rules: The first involves a vowel alternation, whereby the vowel a become u :
    
    argaz → urgaz
    amghar → umghar
    adrar → udrar
    The second involves the loss of the initial vowel, in the case of some feminine nouns:
    
    tamghart → tmghart "women"
    tamdint → tmdint "town"
    tarbat → trbat "girl"
    The third involves the addition of a semi-vowel (w or y) word-initially:
    
    asif → wasif "river"
    adu → wadu "wind"
    ils → yils "tongue"
    uccn → wuccn "wolf"
    Finally, some nouns do not change for free state:
    
    taddart → taddart "village"
    tuccnt → tuccnt "female wolf"
    The following table gives the forms for the noun amghar "old man, sheikh":
    
    Grammar
    Subclassification of the Berber languages is made difficult by their mutual closeness; Maarten Kossmann (1999) describes it as two dialect continua, Northern Berber and Tuareg, and a few peripheral languages, spoken in isolated pockets largely surrounded by Arabic, that fall outside these continua, namely Zenaga and the Libyan and Egyptian varieties. Within Northern Berber, however, he recognizes a break in the continuum between Zenati languages and their non-Zenati neighbors; and in the east, he recognizes a division between Ghadames and Awjila on the one hand and El-Foqaha, Siwa, and Djebel Nefusa on the other. The implied tree is:
    There is so little data available on Guanche that any classification is necessarily uncertain; however, it is almost universally acknowledged as Berber on the basis of the surviving glosses. Much the same can be said of the language, sometimes called "Numidian", used in the Libyan or Libyco-Berber inscriptions around the turn of the Common Era, whose alphabet is the ancestor of Tifinagh.
    The Ethnologue, mostly following Aikhenvald and Militarev (1991), subdivides it somewhat differently:
    
    Nefusa-Siwa languages
    Ghadames-Awjila languages
    Northern Berber languages
    
    Zenati languages (including Tarifit)
    Kabyle language
    Moroccan Atlas languages (including Tashelhiyt and Central Morocco Tamazight)
    Tuareg languages
    Zenaga language
    Guanche
    Eastern Berber languages
    
    Siwa
    Awjila-Sokna languages
    Northern Berber languages
    
    Zenati languages
    Kabyle language
    Chenoua language
    Moroccan Atlas languages
    Tamasheq languages
    
    Northern Tamasheq languages
    Southern Tamasheq languages
    Zenaga language Subclassification
    
    See also

2008-03-23T08:27:00.000-07:00

Upmarket commodities are products, services or real estate targeted at high-income consumers. Examples of products would include items from Mercedes-Benz, Tiffany & Co., Hammacher-Schlemmer, Chanel and The Sharper Image. Upmarket real estate communities include Hampstead, England, Carmel-by-the-Sea, California, Hillsborough, California, Ladue, Missouri, SouthPark and Shenzhen, China. There is an entire field of literature directed at the branding of upmarket goods.

Examples of upmarket goods
Clothing, cologne, chocolates and consumer electronics are examples of classes of goods that are commonly brand-segregated to yield upmarket branding. Luxury automobiles are frequently dubbed as upmarket or upscale. There are also upmarket newspapers which are newspapers which are produced to appeal to high income individuals. Upmarket newspapers may focus less on tabloid journalism, with the intention of reporting more faithful news and advertising of high-end goods and real estate.

2008-03-22T09:00:00.001-07:00

The Stationery Office (TSO) is a British publishing company that was created in 1996 when the publishing arm of Her Majesty's Stationery Office was privatised.
In 2007, The Stationery Office was bought by Williams Lea.

Uncovered Editions

Office of Public Sector Information

2008-03-21T10:27:00.001-07:00

Senior club appearances and goals counted for the domestic league only. * Appearances (Goals)
Robert Sime 'Roy' Aitken (born November 24, 1958, in Irvine, Ayrshire) is a former football player who went on to become a coach with Leeds United and Aston Villa. His position as a player was midfield.
He started his life in Ardrossan, where most of his family still live today. Roy was Educated at St Peter's Primary School in the town, a place which fueled his love of the game; before going on to St Andrews Academy of Saltcoats when he was twelve. He was an astute pupil, certainly able to go on to higher education but having also furthered his keen interest in football, decided to sign a S-Form with his boyhood Heroes Celtic. During his time at the school he not only excelled at Football but also Rugby and track & field, winning both the schools title of Junior Sports Champion, and then following that by winning the Senior Sports Champion title the next year, whilst still only in 4th year.
He previously had a glowing playing career with Celtic where he was nicknamed 'The Bear' by the supporters due to his large frame and commanding presence. The chant 'Feed the Bear' could be heard on a weekly basis from the terraces of Celtic Park. The supporters took to Roy right from start of his career and he is still reguarly voted in All Time XI's by the fans who still consider him a club legend. He also proudly played 57 games for the Scotland national football team, scoring once. He later went on to play for Newcastle United, St Mirren and Aberdeen. After his playing career he had a short spell in management with Scottish Premier League team Aberdeen, and won the Scottish League Cup in 1995 before turning his attention to coaching.
He went on to become a highly respected coach with Leeds United before rejoining former Leeds coach David O'Leary at Aston Villa. On July 20, 2006 he was named caretaker manager of Aston Villa after O'Leary's exit by mutual consent the previous evening. Aitken managed Villa to 3 pre-season victories before being replaced by the new Villa manager, Martin O'Neill.
He is now one of Alex McLeish's assistants with the Scotland national side as of January 2007.

2008-03-20T09:00:00.001-07:00

César Milstein (October 8, 1927 – March 24, 2002) was an Argentine-born British biochemist in the field of antibody research. Milstein shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1984 with Niels K. Jerne and Georges Köhler.

Biography
The major part of Milstein's research career was devoted to studying the structure of antibodies and the mechanism by which antibody diversity is generated. It was as part of this quest that in 1975 he, together with Georges Köhler (a postdoctoral fellow in his laboratory), developed the hybridoma technique for the production of monoclonal antibodies - a discovery recognised by the award of the 1984 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine. This discovery led to an enormous expansion in the exploitation of antibodies in science and medicine.
Milstein himself made many major contributions to improvements and developments in monoclonal antibody technology - especially focusing on the use of monoclonal antibodies to provide markers that allow distinction between different cell types. He also foresaw the potential wealth of ligand-binding reagents that could result from applying recombinant DNA technology to monoclonal antibodies and inspired the development of the field of antibody engineering.
Milstein's early work on antibodies focused on the nature of their diversity at the amino acid level as well as on the disulphide bonds by which they were held together. Part of this work was done in collaboration with his wife, Celia. The emphasis of his research then shifted towards the mRNA encoding antibodies where he was able to provide the first evidence for the existence of a precursor for these secreted polypeptides that contained a signal sequence. The development of the hybridoma technology coupled to advances in nucleic acid sequencing then allowed Milstein to chart the changes that occurred in antibodies following antigen encounter. He demonstrated the importance of somatic hypermutation of immunoglobulin V genes in antibody affinity maturation. In this process, localised mutation of the immunoglobulin genes allows the production of improved antibodies which make a major contribution to protective immunity and immunological memory. Much of his work in recent years was devoted to characterising this mutational process with a view to understanding its mechanism and, indeed, he contributed a manuscript for publication on this topic less than a week before he died. Quite apart from his own achievements, Milstein acted as a guide and inspiration to many in the antibody field as well as devoting himself to assisting science and scientists in less well developed countries.
He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1975, was a fellow of Darwin College, Cambridge from 1980 to 2002, awarded the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize from Columbia University in 1980, won the Copley Medal in 1989, and became a Companion of Honour in 1995.
Milstein died early on Sunday 24 March 2002 in Cambridge, England at age 74 as a result of a heart condition from which he had suffered for many years.

2008-03-19T08:42:00.001-07:00

Inspector Lestrade is a fictional character, a Scotland Yard detective appearing in several of the Sherlock Holmes stories by Arthur Conan Doyle. Doyle used the name (originally pronounced in the French way: l'estrade "less-TRAHD") of an acquaintance from his days at the University of Edinburgh, a St.Lucian whom Doyle disliked. In The Cardboard Box, his first initial is revealed to be G.
It is observed by Holmes in A Study in Scarlet that Lestrade and another detective, Tobias Gregson, have an ongoing rivalry. In The Hound of the Baskervilles, Holmes comments to Dr. Watson that Lestrade "is the best of the professionals, I think," meaning the professional detectives employed by Scotland Yard as opposed to himself.
Lestrade is frequently exasperated by Holmes's unconventional methods. "I am a practical man," he says in The Boscombe Valley Mystery. However, in time he does come to appreciate and respect the unofficial detective's record of success. "We're not jealous of you down at Scotland Yard," he says in The Six Napoleons. "No, sir, we are damned proud of you." Watson notes in passing that this little comment is one of the few instances where Holmes is visibly moved.
In the popular London media, Lestrade is depicted as one of the best detectives at Scotland Yard. Holmes once remarked in The Adventure of the Cardboard Box that although Lestrade had almost no skill at actual crime-solving, his tenacity and determination are what brought him to the highest ranks in the official police force.
The author M. J. Trow wrote a series of sixteen books using Lestrade as the central character, beginning with The Adventures of Inspector Lestrade in 1985. In these stories, Trow shows Lestrade to be a more than capable detective. He is given a first name, Sholto, a young daughter whom he seldom sees, and a series of adventures set against an historical backdrop. In one book Lestrade meets G.K. Chesterton and in another he suffers a broken leg in a fall from the gangplank of the RMS Titanic.
Lestrade's lack of intelligence is frequently exaggerated in adaptations, often characterizing him as a congenial idiot.
Colin Jeavons played Lestrade in the Granada Television adaptation of the Sherlock Holmes stories, The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes with the character played as a capable, if slightly vain, career policeman prone with a prickly but affectionate relationship with Holmes. Dennis Hoey played Lestrade in several of the Sherlock Holmes films from Universal Pictures which starred Basil Rathbone as Holmes.

Other Fictional Portrayals

Archie Duncan played Lestrade in the 1954-55 French-made series Sherlock Holmes.
Borislav Brondukov played him in all of the Russian Sherlock Holmes TV series starring Vasily Livanov
Frank Finlay played him twice in A Study in Terror and Murder by Decree.
Jeffrey Jones was Lestrade in Without a Clue
Kenaway Baker made a quick appearance as Lestrade in Incident at Victoria Falls